The agony of the Tula plant While Akinfiy’s Altai and Ural plants finally provided his smelters with the most valuable metals that the metallurgy of that era dealt with, his Tula plant was slowly dying. A shortage of coal, without which they could not operate

Vyatka region Remembering his early childhood, a person usually sees it as a series of changing pictures. Only events, objects, colors that struck us with something are remembered. The rest is blurry, it is elusive. The first thing that the artist Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov remembered for all

In the field (“All around from edge to edge...”) All around from edge to edge A sea of ​​rye calmly slumbers, Diving above it in the air Nimble swifts frolic. The sun is approaching sunset And in the sky the color of cornflower, Like the smoke of a distant censer, Clouds float and melt. And if suddenly in this

At the edge of the abyss In the spring of 1560, the peaceful life of Salon, and of all Provence, was disrupted by clashes on religious grounds. The situation in the country was deteriorating; Both Catholics and Protestants behaved more and more aggressively, and the government of the young King Francis II and the regent

Chapter 9 Metallurgical plants and oil sources. Leaving the railway service. Travel to Europe I have always had a special love for the Keystone factories, because all the others owe their origin to them. Very soon after their discovery it was obvious

Who owned the first metallurgical plants in Russia? and got the best answer

Answer from Condorita[guru]
Demidov
According to Akinfiy Demidov’s will, his entire “empire” was to go to his beloved son Nikita. However, as a result of long family proceedings (even Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself participated in them), the entire inheritance was divided between three brothers - Prokofy, Grigory and Nikita. The latter received only the Nizhny Tagil part of the inheritance, which included six Ural factories. By the end of Nikita Demidov’s life, the number of enterprises he owned increased to nine. Moreover, in terms of production size, they surpassed all the factories that belonged to his father in the mid-18th century.
Nikita undoubtedly inherited from his father the talent of a manager and industrialist, as well as extreme cruelty towards those who forged this wealth for him. His bad temper became famous throughout Russia. Thus, the peasants of the village of Rusanovo, Tula province, having learned that Nikita Demidov had bought them, rebelled, refusing to pass to the new owner. A military detachment was sent to pacify the peasants - as a result of the clash, more than 60 people died.
Nikita Demidov no longer lives in the Urals, near his factories. He has the Petrovskoye estate near Moscow, luxurious houses in Moscow - one on Myasnitskaya (on the site of the current post office), the other on Voznesenskaya Street Nemetskaya Sloboda, on Yauza - Slobodskaya House (now Radio Street, 10). He was well known in Moscow. True, the house took so long to build (from 1762 to the end of the 1770s) that during this time the magnificent Baroque gave way to strict classicism. And the building, built in the Baroque style, no longer corresponded to enlightened taste and seemed somewhat old-fashioned. And yet the house was so good that M. F. Kazakov included it in his album “Particular buildings of Moscow.” The imagination of Muscovites was amazed not only by the house, but also by the magnificent garden with a grotto, figured ponds, decorative fences cast at Demidov factories, and greenhouses.
Unlike his brother Prokofy, who could not stand titled nobility, Nikita Akinfievich always strived to be recognized among high-ranking people. Perhaps, in this way, throughout his life he overcame the complex of his not entirely “pure”, humble origin. But they say that it constantly made itself felt. The outstanding Russian scientist-encyclopedist A. T. Bolotov, noting the cordiality and curiosity of the “glorious rich man”, in whose Moscow house he saw plenty of “such rare things as he had never seen before,” also notes that “with all his enormous wealth and celebrities" Demidov is, in essence, a simpleton, and through his gold one can see "all the rudeness of his vile nature."

Early stages of metallurgy development

Despite the names of periods of evolution primitive society, metallurgy began its development back in the Stone Age. The most ancient human efforts in metalworking are dated by historians to the sixth century BC. Relevant archaeological finds evidence of this were discovered on the Iberian Peninsula, in the Balkans (in Serbia and Bulgaria), and in British Stonehenge. True, it is not always easy to establish the age of all these finds.

Of course, my first experiments in metallurgy ancient man carried out with fusible metals: silver, tin, as well as iron of meteorite origin. Processing metals with higher melting temperatures was simply impossible in those distant times. So, in the 3rd millennium BC. the Egyptians learned to make quite good weapons from meteorite iron, which were valued far beyond Ancient Egypt. These durable blades were soon called “heavenly daggers.”

About 5,500 years ago, humanity entered a new era of its development - the Bronze Age. This transition was marked by several important achievements. Firstly, man learned to extract tin from rocks. Secondly, he managed to obtain a completely new alloy - . However further development metallurgy needed more technologically advanced and more complex processes, and therefore slowed down for more than two millennia.

It is generally accepted that it was first revealed from the body to the Hittites, a people who lived in Asia Minor and were mentioned several times in the Bible. This happened around 1200 BC. It is from this date that the Iron Age begins in the development of society.

Traces of the development of ferrous metallurgy can be seen in various historical cultures: in Ancient Greece and Rome, Egypt and Anatolia, Carthage, Ancient China and India. It would not be amiss to note that many of the techniques and methods of metal processing were invented by the Chinese, and only then they were all mastered by Europeans. We are talking, in particular, about the smelting, invention or hydraulic hammer. But the leaders in the field of metal forging and mining, as researchers recently found out, were the ancient Romans.

History of the development of metallurgy in Africa, Southeast Asia and Australia

How did it develop in other regions of the Earth? It is known that in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, tools made of cast iron were already actively used in Southeast Asia. At first these were bimetallic products, and a little later they were made entirely of iron.

The population of Ancient China was also familiar with bimetallic things. Iron of meteorite origin was used for their production. The first information about such products dates back to the 8th century BC. But by the middle of the first millennium BC, the production of real iron began in this part of the world. It was the Chinese who were the first to master the technique of producing cast iron, and they did it much earlier than the Europeans.

The African region also made its significant contribution to the global process of metallurgy development. It was in Africa that a cylindrical forge was invented, which was not known to other peoples of the world. Many historians are confident that Africans learned to produce iron completely independently, without any outside influences. About 2600 years ago, iron had already appeared in a number of countries and territories of the “dark continent”: in Sudan, Libya and Nubia. Some African tribes, as researchers suggest, even “jumped” from the Stone Age - straight into the Iron Age.

In general, iron production in Africa was fully developed within the second half of the 1st millennium BC. It is curious that copper production was mastered here even a little later. And if jewelry was made from copper on this continent, then only tools were made from iron.

As for the “southern land” - the Australian mainland, here ferrous metallurgy began to develop only during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries (in the 16th-17th centuries).

Features of the development of metallurgy in America

The New World was characterized by the existence of several centers of early metallurgy. One of these hotbeds was in the Andean mountains, which are famous for their rich ore minerals. The first metal here was gold. In addition, silver products were produced in the Andes. On the territory of the modern state of Peru in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. An alloy of silver and copper was obtained - tumbaga, which became extremely popular in South America.

IN Central America people became acquainted with metal only in the first millennium BC. Moreover, he was brought here. The Mayan tribes mastered the craft of metal production only by the 7th century AD. However, by this time their civilization was already approaching its decline.

The first metal North America became copper. Then they learned to make iron here (at first meteorite, and a little later - flash). This happened in the first millennium BC, and the western regions of the continent developed much faster in this area.

Invention of the cheese-making process

One of the most ancient methods of obtaining iron is called cheese-blowing (from the words “blow” and “raw”). Furnaces were dug directly into the ground, usually on the slopes of the terrain. Damp (cold) air was blown into small furnaces containing iron ore. In the early stages of development this method air draft was natural, but later it was replaced by artificial one - air was forced into the furnace.

The bottom of the furnaces was filled with coal, and ore was placed on top in layers. The latter, during its combustion, released oxide - a gas that performed the function of reducing iron oxides. It is worth noting that with the cheese-blowing method, the iron was not so much melted as “cooked,” since this process created a temperature insufficient for melting iron (about 1200 degrees Celsius). Based on this, “boiled” iron in the form of a spongy mass resembling dough was located at the bottom of the furnace. This mass, as a rule, included numerous impurities and coal residues (albeit in some cases slag was removed from the furnace through a special chute).

In order to produce any products from such a substrate, it was necessary to first remove foreign impurities from the kritsa. This was done using forging - cold and hot. Ultimately, it was possible to obtain screaming iron for later use.

The “invention” of the cheese-making method of iron production, as historians suggest, occurred during the direct smelting of copper. As is known, this process was accompanied by the addition of not only coal and the corresponding ore, but also hematites to the smelting furnaces. And it was precisely under this scenario that, most likely, man received the first shouts of iron. It is quite possible that copper smelting furnaces simply gradually turned into cheese-blowing furnaces.

It so happens that it is much easier to obtain copper than iron. Even though copper and tin ores are much less common in nature than iron ores. That is why the cheese-making process turned out to be very important stage in the development of ferrous metallurgy. This technology was constantly improved: by improving the blowing process or increasing the size of the furnaces. However, all these improvements did not solve the main problem: flash iron contained practically no carbon, which means it could not compete with bronze. Things made from it were not hard enough compared to products made from bronze. It is for this reason that iron was used to a greater extent for making jewelry in those days. Something simply had to change in iron production.

Mastering the technology of carburization and hardening of iron

The next round of progress in the development of metallurgy was the emergence of the so-called “cementation” technology, as well as the hardening and thermal tempering of iron. The beginning of a full-fledged Iron Age is associated with the development of these three processes.

Cementation refers to the process of artificially saturating the grain with carbon. This technology was mastered by man first. For cementation of rocky iron they were used various substances. At first, the mass was calcined in bone charcoal, and later in other substances with a high carbon content. The mastery of cementation technology gave man the opportunity to obtain the first, albeit very primitive, samples of steel.

“Cemented” iron was already superior to bronze in its hardness. In this case, the degree of saturation of the kritsa with carbons depended on the heating temperature of the iron.

Following the discovery of the cementation technique, the hardening effect was discovered. The man was surprised to discover that iron saturated with carbon and cooled becomes even stronger. For such cooling, water, snow was used, or the iron was simply left in the open cold air. There was an effect even in the latter case.

Both processes described above were most likely discovered by man by accident. It is unlikely that the ancient blacksmiths could explain the true nature of these processes. This is evidenced by the found written sources of those times. In particular, you can find very interesting moments in them. Thus, the fact that the strength of iron increases during hardening was often explained by fantastic or mystical theories. For example, in a chronicle from Asia Minor dating back to the ninth century BC, one can find a colorful method of hardening iron by “plunging a dagger” into the body of a “muscular slave.” It was the strength of the slave, according to the author of this text, that made the metal harder. No less interesting is a separate fragment taken from Homer’s “Odyssey,” where burning out a Cyclops’ eye is compared to plunging a red-hot iron cleaver into ice water. Moreover, Homer refers to the latter procedure as “the ax treatment.” Based on this, the ancient Greeks probably did not understand the nature of the metal hardening process, but gave it a special, magical meaning.

Hardened steel has one significant drawback - it is excessive fragility. The discovery of the technology of thermal tempering of iron made it possible to significantly reduce it. This technology consists of heating products to 727 degrees Celsius (this is the limiting temperature of deformation of the iron structure).

One should not think that the development of technologies for carburizing, tempering and hardening of iron was a one-time process. In fact, these processes lasted about a thousand years! But it was the discovery and improvement of these three technologies that once and for all put an end to the irreconcilable competition between bronze and iron.

Development of metallurgy in the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, smelting furnaces had already changed significantly. Firstly, they reached two to three meters in height. And secondly, they worked using water energy: blowers set in motion special pipes or large water wheels.

In medieval Europe, the so-called “stukofen” were widespread - huge and tall furnaces, which brought ferrous metallurgy to a new stage in its development. These furnaces were equipped with a 4-meter pipe to enhance traction and water engines. Sometimes the bellows were driven by several workers. The glandular critsa were removed from such a furnace once a day.
The history of the invention and penetration of stukofen into Europe is interesting. They were invented in India in the first millennium BC. Then the new invention came to neighboring China, and from there, in the 7th century AD, to the Arab world. In the 13th century, the Arabs brought these miracle stoves to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, from where they quickly spread throughout Europe.

In terms of productivity and technical parameters, the stukofen was head and shoulders above its predecessors – cheese-blowing ovens. The smelting temperature in it was higher, which made it possible to obtain high-grade cast iron. The stukofen could produce more than two centners of iron per day. True, cast iron from such an installation was, as a rule, unsuitable. The fact is that it ended up at the bottom of the furnace, mixing with slag. To clean it, forging was required, which cast iron did not lend itself to. At that time, no other methods of cleaning it were known.

Nevertheless, some peoples still managed to find use for even such “dirty” cast iron. Hindus, for example, made coffins from it for the dead. But in Ottoman Empire Cannonballs were made from cast iron.

Invention of a new type of furnace - blauofen

Medieval metallurgists established an important pattern: the higher the melting temperature of the ore in the furnace, the more product (iron) can be obtained at the output. After this discovery, they began to try to modernize their stucco fans: increase the height of the pipes and set up an air preheating system. So in the 15th century, a new type of stove appeared in Europe - blauofen.

However, the modernized furnaces almost immediately unpleasantly surprised metallurgists. The yield of the final product actually increased, but at the same time, the amount of waste—unusable cast iron—increased by 20%. Dirty, or, as it was also called, “pork” iron, just solidified at the bottom of the new furnaces. Cast iron mixed with slag, as before, was absolutely unsuitable for casting. As a rule, it was used to produce sledgehammers, anvils and other rough equipment. True, cannonballs made from blauofen cast iron turned out to be of better quality.

Another positive aspect of the Blauofen is that the amount of steel around the edges of the iron core in these furnaces has increased significantly. Of course, this pleased the metallurgists. However, on the other hand, it was very, very difficult to separate such steel from screaming iron. And in this situation, different peoples took different paths in solving this complex problem.

Thus, in India, all efforts were devoted to improving forging technology in order to achieve a more uniform distribution of carbons in the product. And these efforts bore fruit - the Indians received damask steel - a very strong and elastic steel, from which first-class edged weapons were produced at that time. Bulat was also produced in Iran and Central Asia.
The Chinese and Europeans, unlike the Indians, were not at all interested in the quality, but in the quantity of the final product. Therefore, it was they who soon discovered the so-called conversion process, which had an incredibly strong influence on the development of metallurgy as a whole.

The emergence of blast furnaces

Up to 1,500 tons of high-quality cast iron per day - this was something medieval metallurgists never even dreamed of. But this became a daily norm with the advent of blast furnaces. Thanks to its large size, air preheating and mechanical blasting system, such a furnace was capable of extracting iron from the ore mass and converting it into cast iron. The latter came out in molten form. True, forging was still necessary. But now there was much less slag in the mass, and more iron. Another advantage of the blast furnace was its continuous operation. The installation operated around the clock, without stopping or cooling.

In the 18th century, another process was discovered in European metallurgy - puddling. It involved purifying cast iron in a furnace using gas obtained from the combustion of coal or other mineral fuel. By the way, in Ancient China they even produced steel using this method back in the 10th century. With this cleaning technique, ferrous particles collected in lumps. They were then welded in a forge or in a special rolling machine, and various iron blanks were obtained from them. The puddling method made it possible to increase iron productivity to 140 kg per hour.

Development of metallurgy in the 19th and 20th centuries

The next leap in the development of metallurgy occurred in late XIX century. During this period, almost simultaneously, three completely new methods were introduced into metal production: open-hearth, Thomas and Bessemer. All these methods increased steel production enormously - up to six tons per hour.
Half a century later, even newer processes are being introduced into metallurgy. These are, in particular, continuous casting of steel and oxygen blasting. Blowing oxygen through molten metal in converter furnaces significantly accelerated the rate of chemical reactions.

History, as we know, moves in a spiral. This also applies to the history of industrial production. Thousands of years ago, people built cheese furnaces in the ground and obtained, using a one-step method, high-quality, corrosion-resistant iron with a small amount of impurities. And today, scientists have returned to the technology of single-stage processes, developing a method of ore beneficiation and steel production

Which Arab traveler made it in the 10th century? trip to Volga Bulgaria and then compiled a description of the life of the peoples of Eastern Europe?

1. Avicenna
2. Rashid al-Din
3. Ibn Fadlan
4. Ibn Battuta

Task 2

In what year did the events described below take place?

“A nationwide struggle unfolded against the invaders. Patriotic journalism was spreading throughout the country (“New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, etc.). In early spring, a militia was created. Its core was the detachments of Ryazan nobles, led by P. Lyapunov. The militia also included nobles, townspeople and peasants of the Volga region and the northeast of the country.”

1. 1604
2. 1611
3. 1612
4. 1617

Task 3

The emergence of which city is associated with a metallurgical plant built on the orders of Peter I?

1. Bryansk
2. Irkutsk
3. Magnitogorsk
4. Lipetsk

Answer

1 point for each correct answer.

Total 3 points for tasks 1–3

In tasks 4–6, choose several correct answers from those proposed.

Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.

Task 4

Indicate the names of historical figures who were contemporaries of Alexander I.

1. Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn
2. Gabriel Ivanovich Golovkin
3. Pyotr Alekseevich Palen
4. Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov
5. Alexey Alexandrovich Kurbatov
6. Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky

Task 5

Which of specified terms are they related to architecture?

1. zakomara
2. scan
3. spatula
4. cinnabar
5. portal
6. liturgy

Task 6

Which of the names are related to the Cossack troops that existed in Russia?

1. Nizhny Novgorod
2. Donskoe
3. Astrakhan
4. Yakutsk
5. Semirechenskoe
6. Buzulukskoe

Answer

2 points for a completely correct answer to each task; 1 point for an answer with one error (one of the correct answers is not indicated or one incorrect answer is given along with all the correct answers indicated).

Total 6 points for tasks 4–6.

Task 7

The list below presents legislative acts adopted under various rulers of Russia in the 18th–19th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the serial numbers of legislative acts that appeared under the corresponding ruler.

1. Letter of grant to the nobility
2. An institution for the management of a large active army
3. Statute of the Order of St. George the Victorious
4. Table of ranks
5. decree on the creation of the Governing Senate
6. decree on the liquidation of the Secret Expedition
7. decree on unity of inheritance
8. decree on the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium instead of the hetman's rule in Little Russia
9. manifesto on the formation of the State Council

Answer

Total 9 points.

Task 8

The list below presents the names of cities and territories annexed to the Moscow Principality (Russian State) under various rulers in the 15th–16th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the serial numbers of cities and territories annexed under the corresponding ruler.

1. Khanate of Kazan
2. Ugra land
3. Smolensk
4. Bashkiria
5. Pskov
6. Novgorod
7. Ryazan
8. Tver
9. Khanate of Astrakhan

Answer

1 point for indicating the name of the ruler. (If the name is incorrect, the answer in this column will not be accepted.) 2 points for a completely correct match; 1 point for compliance with one error.

Total 9 points.

Task 9

On what principle are the rows formed? Give the most accurate answer possible.

1. Grengam, Noteburg, Gangut, Helsingfors.

2. IN. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Soloviev, N.I. Kostomarov, N.M. Karamzin.

Answer

• 1. Northern War battlefields.
• 2. Russian scientists-historians.

2 points for each correct answer.

Total 4 points.

Task 10

Arrange in chronological order historical events. Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.

• A) creation of the Kyiv metropolis
• B) the final victory of Yaroslav the Wise over Svyatopolk
• C) acceptance of the Yaroslavich Truth
• D) reform of pagan cults
• D) the death of Prince Boris
• E) installation of Hilarion as Metropolitan

Answer

Total 4 points.

Task 11

Arrange the terms in the chronological order of their appearance. Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.

• A) military districts
• B) provinces
• B) Life Guards
• D) boyars
• D) military settlements
• E) Sagittarius

Answer

4 points for a completely correct sequence; 2 points for a sequence with one error (i.e. the correct sequence is restored by rearranging any two characters); 0 points if more than 1 mistake is made.

Total 4 points.

Task 12

Match the names of the artists with the titles of their works. Write down the selected numbers under the corresponding letters in the table on the work form.

Answer

Answer

1 point for each correct match. Only 5 points.

Task 14

Fill in the blanks in the text. If necessary, with serial numbers, explanations are given about the nature of the required insertion. Necessary words, names, dates, write under the corresponding numbers in the table placed in the work form.

In 1735 Russia decided to transfer (1 – country name) its Caspian provinces, conquered by Peter I during (2 – name) campaign of 1722–1723. These provinces did not bring in any income, and maintaining an army and fortresses there burdened the treasury. Türkiye by (3 – name) Treaty of 1724 recognized these provinces as Russian, but she did not want to put up with the success of her main competitor in Transcaucasia – (1). Therefore, the troops of Turkey's vassal (4 – name of state) went to the Caucasus, violating the borders of Russia. In reply Russian empire declared war on Turkey. Russia's ally in this war was (5) .

In the fall of 1735, the corps under the leadership of General M.I. Leontiev tried to enter the territory (4) , but the lack of roads and poor supply of troops did not allow this to be done.

The following year, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal (6 – surname) passed (7) - the isthmus separating the peninsula from the mainland - and captured the capital (4) - city (8) . Then, for fear of being locked in (4) the Tatar army returning from Transcaucasia, (6) left Crimean territory. In the summer of the same year, the Russians occupied the fortress (9) , and next year - a fortress (10) .

On the initiative of the Turks, in the summer of 1737, trilateral peace negotiations began in Nemirov, but they soon reached a dead end, and the war continued. Russian troops won small victories. The most major battle they won in August 1739 under (11 – title), after which two days later they occupied the fortress (12) . This event made such a deep impression on his contemporaries that (13 – surname) wrote his famous “Ode to Taking (12) " That same year in (14 – city name) A peace treaty was concluded that ended the war. Unfortunately, it was disadvantageous for Russia, since under its terms it did not receive access to (15 – geographical object).

Answer

• 15 correct insertions – 9 points.
• 14 correct insertions – 8 points.
• 12–13 correct insertions – 7 points.
• 10–11 correct insertions – 6 points.
• 8–9 correct insertions – 5 points.
• 6–7 correct insertions – 4 points.
• 4–5 correct insertions – 3 points.
• 2–3 correct insertions – 2 points.
• 1 correct insertion – 1 point.

Total 9 points.

Task 15

Look carefully at the map and complete the tasks below.

15.1 Write who was the ally of the Russian troops in the battle that took place south of all the battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Cumans (1 point).

15.2 Write the number that represents the city that withstood the siege of Mongol troops for several weeks.

Answer

1 (1 point).

15.3 Write your name historical figure, who defended the city indicated by the number 8, winning two battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Alexander Nevskiy (1 point).

15.4 Write the name of the Mongol commander who participated in the campaigns of the 1220s–1230s reflected on the map.

Answer

Subedei (1 point).

15.5 Are the statements below true (yes - no)? Enter your answers into the table.

• A) The defense of the city, indicated by the number 6, was led by Voivode Dmitry.
• B) In one of the battles indicated on the map, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky died.
• C) The name of the state whose capital was in the 15th century is signed on the map. became Königsberg.
• D) Vladimir troops took part in the battle near the city indicated by the number 5.
• D) A contemporary of all the events reflected on the map was the son of Genghis Khan, Jochi.

Answer

2 points for each correct answer. Total 10 points.

Total 14 points for task 15.

Task 16

Correlate the images presented below with the characteristics of the Russian princes given by various domestic historians, with whom these images are associated in meaning. Write the names of these figures in the table.

In the appropriate columns, indicate the serial number of the fragment of the description of the historical figure and the digital designation of the event world history, whose contemporary he was.

Characteristics of domestic historians

1. “Modern researchers, in general, are unanimous in assessing his role in the creation of a new political system of the Russian state, based on “paternal” ownership of lands. But this is only one of two components of the prince’s political program... In his understanding... the most important basis political structure society should have become “fear of God” - a sense of responsibility of princes ... before God, before whom each of those living on earth had to answer at the Last Judgment" ( A.Yu. Karpov).
2. “He was a man of strong character, cold, reasonable, with a hard heart, power-hungry, unswerving in the pursuit of his chosen goal, hidden, extremely cautious; in all his actions one can see gradualness, even slowness; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to make excellent use of circumstances; he never got carried away, but acted decisively when he saw that the matter had matured to the point where success was undoubted. The taking of lands and, possibly, their permanent annexation to the Moscow state was his cherished goal political activity; following his forefathers in this matter, he surpassed them all and left an example of imitation for his descendants for a long time» ( N.I. Kostomarov).
3. “He acted as an imperious patrimonial prince, steadily striving to expand the territory of his principality and to subordinate other Russian princes to his power. His activities lacked the motives of the national liberation struggle. The prince did not fight against the oppression of the Golden Horde, but bought off the khan with a regular “exit” payment, giving Rus' some respite from the Tatar raids...” ( L.V. Cherepnin).
4. “With his careful, prudent policy, he saved Rus' from final ruin by the armies of nomads. Through armed struggle, trade policy, and selective diplomacy, he avoided new wars in the North and West, a possible but disastrous alliance with the papacy for Rus', and a rapprochement between the Curia and the Crusaders and the Horde. He gained time, allowing Rus' to grow stronger and recover from the terrible devastation. He is the founder of the policy of the Moscow princes, the policy of the revival of Russia" ( V.T. Pashuto).

Events of world history

I. Convocation of the Estates General in France

II. Excommunication of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II from the church.

III. Unification of Castile and Aragon into a single kingdom

IV. Walking to Canossa

Answer

1 point for each correct answer element.

Total 12 points.

Task 17

One of the most important aspects of a historian’s activity is the analysis of a source and the ability to extract the necessary information from it. Here is a fragment of “Notes on Ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations”, compiled by N.M. Karamzin. Based on it, write a short work “Criticism of the liberal reforms of Alexander I by his contemporaries.” " Main mistake legislators of this reign consists in excessive respect for the forms government activities: That’s why the invention of various ministries, the establishment of the Council, etc. Things are not done better - only in places and by officials of a different name. Let us follow another rule and say that it is not the forms, but the people that are important. Let the ministries and the Council exist: they will be useful if in the ministry and in the Council we see only men famous for intelligence and honor. So, our first good wish is, may God help Alexander in the happy election of people! Such an election, and not the establishment of a Senate with collegiums, marked the greatness of Peter's reign during internal affairs empires. This monarch had a passion for capable people, looked for them in monastery cells and in dark cabins: there I found Feofan and Osterman, glorious in our state history. The circumstances are different and modest, the quiet qualities of the soul distinguish Alexander from Peter, who was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone and took it upon himself to decide the dignity of a person with one word, with one look; but let there be the same rule: look for people! Whoever has the power of attorney of the Sovereign, let him notice them in the distance for the very first places. Not only in republics, but also in monarchies, candidates must be appointed solely according to ability. The almighty hand of the autocrat leads one, rushes the other to heights; slow gradualism is the law for the multitude, not for all. Those who have the mind of a minister should not turn gray as chiefs or secretaries. Officials are humiliated not by their quick acquisition, but by the stupidity or dishonor of dignitaries; envy is aroused, but soon falls silent in the face of the worthy. You do not form a useful ministry by composing an Order - then you will form it when you prepare good ministers. The council is considering their proposal, but are you confident in the wisdom of its members? General wisdom is born only from private wisdom. In a word, what is most needed now is people!”

Work plan

1. Characteristics of the document. Based on your knowledge of the history course, answer the questions. What is the author of “The Note” famous for? When was the document created? Who was it intended for?
2. Characteristics of the circumstances of the creation of the document. What problem is addressed in the “Note”? What transformations were carried out by Emperor Alexander I at that time? Which statesman was negatively perceived by Karamzin as the author of unnecessary transformations for the country?
3. What arguments does the author give to substantiate his point of view, subjecting the innovations to cautious criticism? What dignity did he find in the political system of which he was an opponent? Give three points.
4. Conclusions: what current of social thought did the author belong to? What did he first of all draw the attention of the addressee of the “Note” to? Give two points.

Answer

1. The author of the “Note” N.M. Karamzin is a historian, author of “History of the Russian State”, court historiographer of Alexander I, writer (the story “Poor Liza”), publisher of magazines (“Moscow Journal”, “Bulletin of Europe”). The “Note” was created in 1811. It was intended for Emperor Alexander I.
2. Karamzin considers the problem of the liberal policy of Alexander I, transformations in the system government controlled. At the time of writing the Note, ministries and the State Council were established by Alexander I. Karamzin had a negative attitude towards M.M. Speransky, who developed a system of liberal reforms of the state apparatus. (2 points for each position. Total 6 points.)
3. The following provisions can be given.
   • Karamzin says that great importance has no shape government agencies, but the content of their activities. The author of the “Note” sees the main problem as finding people worthy of occupying top positions in the management apparatus. The main criterion in this case should be the person’s abilities.
   • The author talks about the personal qualities of Alexander I (“modest, quiet qualities of the soul”), setting Peter I as an example (“he was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone,” “had a passion for capable people”). He names the names of prominent figures whom Peter attracted to govern the state.
   • Karamzin notes that in republics, candidates for government positions are appointed “solely based on ability.” The same should be true in a monarchy. (2 points for each position. Total 6 points.)
4. N.M. Karamzin belonged to the conservative movement (1 point). It is no coincidence that the “Note” is called the first manifesto of Russian conservatism. Karamzin calls for caution regarding innovations in the public administration system, emphasizing that the whole point is not in institutions, but in the personal qualities of the monarch and other leaders of the state. Karamzin notes the possibilities of the “almighty hand of the autocrat” (autocrat) for building a state. (1 point for each position.)

Only 3 points.

Total 21 points.

Task 18

You will have to work with statements by historians and contemporaries about events and figures national history. Choose one of them that will become the topic of your essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to this statement and justify it with arguments that seem to you the most significant. When choosing a topic, assume that you:

1. clearly understand the meaning of the statement (you don’t have to completely or even partially agree with the author, but you need to understand what exactly he is saying);
2. you can express your attitude to the statement (reasonably agree with the author or completely or partially refute his statement);
3. have specific knowledge (facts, statistics, examples) on the topic;
4. know the terms necessary to correctly express your point of view.

Themes

1. “Under Vladimir Monomakh, Rus' defeated the Polovtsy, and for a while they ceased to be a constant threat. The power of the Kyiv prince extended to all lands inhabited by the ancient Russian people. The strife of the petty princes was resolutely suppressed by the heavy hand of the Grand Duke. Kyiv was truly the capital of a huge, largest state in Europe." (B.A. Rybakov).
2. "Now let's look at the map medieval Europe and let's try to outline international situation Russia. For residents Western Europe the Russian lands of that time were little known. But this does not mean that Russia lived some kind of closed life. It was connected by busy trade routes with the countries of the West, East and the Mediterranean." (M.N. Tikhomirov).
3. “The flourishing of ancient Russian art, with which the name of Rublev is inextricably linked, is simultaneous with the early Italian Renaissance (otherwise, the Proto-Renaissance, or the Pre-Renaissance). But should a parallel be drawn between these flowerings of the arts? And is it even possible to apply the terms “Renaissance” and “Pre-Renaissance” to Old Russian artistic creativity?» (L.D. Lyubimov).
4. “Tsar Boris had no doubt at all that the impostor was prepared by the seditious boyars. One of the tsar’s bodyguards, K. Bussov, reports that Godunov, at the very first news of the impostor’s successes, told his boyars to their faces that this was their doing and was intended to overthrow him, in which he was not mistaken, Bussov added on his own behalf.” (R.G. Skrynnikov).
5. “In the ideology of Peter the Great’s time, the image of a school that was completed by the whole country, “planted” by a formidable “teacher,” was popular. But for the reformer tsar it was not only a vivid image, but also a real state task.” (E.V. Anisimov).
6. “For Nikolai Pavlovich, the fight against the revolution was not only a tradition bequeathed to him by his elder brother, and not only a matter of personal taste: although for this sovereign, who loved military divorce more than anything in the world, hardly anything could be more disgusting than popular movements that violated every “order” and all subordination. To a large extent, it was a matter of self-preservation for him." (M.N. Pokrovsky).
7. “All the reforms of the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II are undoubtedly in close connection with each other and are a reflection of the social upsurge of energy and creativity that replaced the involuntary thirty years of stagnation and silence. This connection is most obvious if we turn to judicial reform...” (M.P. Chubinsky).

Criteria for assessing essay essays

1. The validity of the choice of topic (an explanation of the choice of topic and the tasks that the participant sets for himself in his work).
2. The creative nature of the perception of the topic, its comprehension.
3. Literacy of use historical facts and terms.
4. Clarity and evidence of the main provisions of the work.
5. Knowledge of different points of view on the topic under consideration.

Up to 5 points for each criterion.

A total of 130 points for the work.

INTRODUCTION

Metallurgy (from the Greek metallurgeo - I mine ore, I process metals, metallon - mine, metal and ergon - work) is a field of science and technology and a branch of industry covering the production of metals from ores and other materials, as well as processes associated with the change chemical composition, structure and properties of metal alloys.

The process of development of metallurgy from ancient times to the present day has been gradual. Many scientists left their mark on the development of metallurgy as a science. Many developments scientific discoveries found yours practical use. metallurgy mining Lomonosov industry

One of the most famous Russian scientists who contributed to metallurgy is Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Thanks to him scientific achievements our state was decades ahead of its contemporaries and the metallurgical industry became one of the main industries National economy Russia.

HISTORY OF METALLURGY DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA

Man has learned to obtain iron since time immemorial. The use of meteorite iron is the first step towards abandoning bronze. This began the transition from Bronze Age to iron. Archaeological excavations of ancient settlements in the central part of Russia, the Urals, Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasia and a number of other areas show that people already 2.5 - 3 millennia ago were able to obtain iron from ores and make weapons, tools and household items.

Later, cast iron began to be heated in a forge along with a piece of iron ore, which made it possible to turn this brittle cast iron into malleable metal - into steel, quite suitable for manufacturing needed by a person household items, hunting and war tools. Fire metallurgy gave way to forge metallurgy.

Appearance in the middle of the 14th century. blast furnaces opened up opportunities for a significant increase in metal output. Demidov metallurgy knew cast iron, blast furnaces, and then blast furnaces, cast iron, rolling production. IN late XVIII V. The British took the lead: crucible melting of steel appeared. The new technology involved conducting the process under silicate slag, i.e. under broken bottle glass.

It was necessary to find a replacement for charcoal: the development of metallurgy led at one time to the fact that forests in England and Ireland were practically destroyed. Even in the time of Cromwell, attempts were made there to smelt blast iron, first with coal, which England is rich in, and then with coal coke. Ultimately, two hundred years ago, what we now call coke blast furnace metallurgy was created. The advent of the blast furnace and the Bessemer converter, which marked a new era in ferrous metallurgy, simultaneously signaled the end of the thousand-year era of “clean” steel and the beginning of a new period - “dirty” steel.

Alloying of iron opened a new era in metallurgy, and therefore in the sphere of consumption of its products.

In the XVI - XVII centuries. The first ironworks were created in Russia. They are being built near ancient Russian cities - Tula, Kashira, Serpukhov, in the Novgorod region and other regions of the country. Already by end of XVII V. their total productivity reaches 150 thousand poods. At the beginning of the 18th century. Russian ferrous metallurgy is developing at an even faster pace. Under Peter I, the Urals became the leading mining and metallurgical region of Russia. In the Urals, large ironworks at that time arose - Kamensky, Nevyansky, Uktussky, Alapaevsky, etc. At the same time, the expansion and construction of enterprises continued in the central part of the country, near Moscow, Lipetsk, Voronezh, and in the northwestern regions. These factories subsequently played a major role in the material support of the Russian army and navy. Only one firstborn of the Ural metallurgy - the Kamensk plant from 1702 to 1709 produced 854 artillery pieces and over 27 thousand pounds of shells for them.

The efforts of the metallurgists of the Peter the Great era were not in vain. Iron smelting and iron production grew in the first quarter of the 18th century. at a rapid pace, from the 30s of the XVIII century to early XIX V. Russia occupied the 1st place in the world in the smelting of cast iron, exported a significant part of the cast iron abroad, including to England, where, for example, according to Academician S.G. Strumilin, the Russian metallurgical industry produced 1165 thousand pounds of cast iron in 1725, i.e. over 19 thousand tons. The productivity of English factories did not exceed 17 thousand tons, and in 1740 the difference between the production of cast iron in Russia and England was already more than 30 thousand tons. Thus, over a quarter of a century, the production of ferrous metals in Russia has increased almost eightfold. In the field of ferrous metallurgy, our country at that time took first place in the world, leaving behind England, France, Germany and other countries.

Metallurgical technology in Russia at the end of the 18th century. was not inferior to Western European, and in many ways even surpassed it. The Ural blast furnaces, for example, were considered the largest in the world at that time. Their height reached 13 m, i.e. was almost the limit for a charcoal-fired stove. The largest diameter of such a furnace (in steam) was almost 4 m, and its weekly output reached 200 - 300 tons. Such high productivity, according to the testimony of the prominent German metallurgy historian L. Beck, was then unattainable for the largest English blast furnaces operating on coke.

In the 18th century The foundations of metal science were laid, the first technical schools - primary, secondary and higher - were created to train qualified personnel in the mining industry.