Science is not the only form cognitive activity. Along with science, there are other forms of knowledge: religious, artistic, everyday, gaming, etc.
To understand the specifics of science, let us highlight the main features of scientific knowledge:
1) The main task of science is to discover the objective laws of reality, primarily the laws of nature and society. Therefore, science focuses mainly on the study of general, essential properties of objects. The very concept of science presupposes the discovery of laws, deepening into the essence of the subjects being studied.
2) Scientific knowledge is systemic in nature, i.e. here knowledge is logically ordered. Knowledge turns into scientific knowledge only when it is included in a system of concepts, in the composition of theories.
3) The immediate goal and highest value of science is the achievement of objective truth. Objective truth is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on man and humanity.
4) Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, in other words, this knowledge must be confirmed by facts and arguments.
For Scientific knowledge is characterized by experimental verifiability and the possibility of repeated reproduction of the results of scientific research.
Science and philosophy
There are three possible approaches to the problem of the relationship between science and philosophy:
Philosophy is science: this is a unique science of all sciences (Aristotle, G. Hegel).
Philosophy is not science, because the conclusions of philosophy cannot be verified, i.e. check by experience (positivists O. Comte, L. Wittgenstein, etc.). A supporter of neopositivism, B. Russell defined philosophy as a no-man's land between science and theology.
Philosophy is partly science and partly not science.(F. Engels). On the one hand, philosophy can be considered a science, since, firstly, it arises simultaneously with science (the first philosophers were scientists at the same time), philosophy is the “foremother” of all sciences; Secondly, like science, philosophy relies on the power of reason (this is the comprehension of the world with the help of special concepts and categories).
But, on the other hand, there are significant differences between philosophy and science:
a) private sciences study phenomena that exist objectively (independent of consciousness), and philosophy studies phenomena through the prism of their connection with man, with his consciousness; b) science relies on experimental verification of its provisions, and philosophy investigates phenomena that are comprehended by the mind; these phenomena, in fact, are inaccessible to sensory verification.
Thus, philosophy is not only a science, but also a worldview.
Science and art
The commonality between science and art is that they are means of cognition and transformation of the world.
But there are also fundamental differences:
Science aims to find general patterns, and art pays attention to each individual human personality, single event, occasion.
Science explores the world based, first of all, on the power of the mind, on abstract thinking. Science is a reflection of the world in concepts, categories, and conclusions. Art explores the world based on feelings and emotions. Art is a reflection of the world with the help of artistic images, and an artistic image is a fusion of feeling and thought, with the sensual side predominant.
Science and everyday knowledge:
People acquire everyday knowledge in the course of direct practical activity, in work. This is traditional medicine, traditional agronomy, etc. Common knowledge is often called common sense.
Science and everyday knowledge are united in that they are aimed at searching for truth. Therefore, there is no insurmountable gap between them. (For example, a doctor and a healer pursue the goal of curing a sick person).
At the same time, there are fundamental differences between scientific and everyday knowledge:
In everyday knowledge there is no theoretical “level” of knowledge. This is a collection of practical information about something. Science presupposes a theory.
Everyday knowledge is unsystematic in nature, and scientific knowledge is knowledge brought into a system, that is, ordered knowledge.
12. The function of science in the life of society (science as a worldview, productive and social force).
Functions of science in the life of society
Production of new knowledge
Predictive function
Event Understanding Function
Science as the basis of worldview
Science as a productive force of society
Science as a social factor in the development of society
The main function of science is to produce new knowledge about the world around us. This knowledge is necessary for
in order, first of all, to explain the facts that one has to constantly encounter in various spheres of production-technical, cultural-historical, cognitive-cultural and everyday practical activity. To carry out this function, science creates concepts, puts forward hypotheses, discovers laws and builds theories.
Of much greater practical interest is the prediction of new phenomena and events, which provides the ability to act knowledgeably both in the present and especially in the future. This predictive function of science is carried out using the same laws and theories that are used for explanation.
Along with explanation, science also contributes to the understanding of events and phenomena. This function plays a significant role in social and humanitarian knowledge, which is focused on the study of the expedient activities of people in various fields public life. To understand the actions and actions of people, it is necessary to interpret them accordingly, i.e. reveal their meaning.
The functions of scientific knowledge discussed above are organically connected with such basic goals of science as serving as the basis of a scientific worldview, a source of development of productive forces and a social factor in the development of society.
Science as the basis of worldview. Each person has his own view of the world around him, with the help of which he expresses his attitude towards it and evaluates it, but such a view is individual in nature. With the emergence of experimental natural science, science becomes an essential component of the modern worldview. Together with philosophy, it constitutes its rational-theoretical basis, since it is with their help that the scientific picture of the world is formed. This picture reflects the basic principles and fundamental laws of development, both nature and society. Accordingly, a distinction is made between the natural scientific picture of nature, on the one hand, and the picture of social life, on the other.
Science exerts its influence on the worldview primarily through scientific picture of the world, in which the general principles of the world order are expressed in a concentrated form. Therefore, getting to know them is the most important task as modern education, and the formation of a person’s scientific worldview.
Science as a productive force of society. By discovering the objective laws of nature, science creates real opportunities for their practical use by society. Science as a direct productive force was first discussed during the scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century, when the latest achievements of science began to be used to replace manual labor with machine labor, mechanize and automate labor-intensive processes in production technology, and use computers and other information technology in various industries. National economy. The promotion of the latest scientific achievements into production was greatly facilitated by the creation of special associations for scientific research and development (R&D), which were tasked with bringing scientific projects for their direct use in production. The establishment of such an intermediate link between theoretical and applied sciences and their implementation in specific design developments contributed to the rapprochement of science with production and its transformation into a real productive force.
Science as a social factor in the development of society. Following the transformation of science into a direct productive force, it gradually begins to play an increasingly important role as a social force in the development of society. This task is carried out primarily by the socio-economic and cultural sciences, which play a regulatory role in various fields social activities. At present, when the threats of global crises in the environment, energy, and shortages of raw materials and food are increasing, the importance of social sciences in the life of society is increasing even more. Their efforts should now be aimed at the rational organization of public life, the main components of which are its democratization, raising the living standards of the population, establishing and strengthening civil society and individual freedom.
By setting himself the problem of obtaining true knowledge and separating truth from error, man created a specific sphere of spiritual activity, to which he entrusted the task of developing and theoretically systematizing objective knowledge about reality. He called this sphere of spiritual activity science. The word "science" literally means "knowledge". Moreover, scientific knowledge is knowledge that has been tested in practice and confirmed by it. Science is characterized by a protective rule, following which it mercilessly separates various guesses from proven statements and, thereby, distinguishes true, reliable knowledge from superstitions, shaky assumptions, and conjectures. Scientific knowledge, like solid ground under one’s feet, allows a person to correctly navigate the world around him, live and act.
Science is knowledge tested and confirmed by practice. brought into the system and allowing to explain the existing and predict the future. Explanation and prediction are the most important functions of scientific knowledge. Both explanation and prediction are carried out by science on the basis of knowledge of objective connections and relationships inherent in the processes and phenomena of the objective world, which makes it possible to identify trends in their development and determine their probabilistic changes.
Reliability (within the limits of the possible) of scientific prediction is the result of creating a theory of the object under consideration, knowledge of the specific conditions of the predicted process or phenomenon and the ability to correctly and logically calculate long-term consequences, results and development prospects. Scientific prediction and foresight are one of the most striking manifestations creative activity scientific and theoretical thinking. They emphasize the importance of science as a form of human knowledge, which allows, based on theoretical thinking, to significantly advance the empirical level of knowledge.
Science as a form of knowledge is a multifaceted phenomenon. On the one hand, it appears as a body of theoretical knowledge about reality, and on the other, it acts as a process of cognition. Science, acting in the form of knowledge, is a type of spiritual activity that produces objectively true, systematized knowledge. Science is not only creative activity to obtain new knowledge, but also the result of such activity.
Scientific knowledge is distinguished by the fact that it is brought into a system on the basis of certain principles and logically framed in the form of a theory. Representing theoretical systems, scientific knowledge expresses the objective laws of the functioning of natural, social, and spiritual formations.
Reflecting the world, science forms a single interconnected, developing system of knowledge about the world and its laws. Depending on the proximity or distance from practice, sciences are divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental sciences are aimed at studying (knowing) the laws of nature, society and thinking. These laws, as well as the structures in which they operate, are studied by fundamental science in their “pure form,” as such, without regard to their possible use. Basic sciences are sometimes called “pure” sciences. The task of applied sciences is to apply the results basic sciences to solve both cognitive and socio-practical problems. This division of sciences is very arbitrary, since applied sciences can develop with a predominance of both practical and theoretical issues. As a rule, fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development. Science is divided into many branches of knowledge (special sciences), which differ in subject and method of cognition.
The classification of sciences is based on an objective factor, on certain aspects of reality, or on the forms of motion of matter that represent the subject of a particular science.
There are sciences about nature, society and knowledge. Separate groups represent technical and mathematical sciences.
Specific features of scientific knowledge are:
1. Specialized languages of science, formed by integral systems of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, embodied in natural or artificial languages.
2. Use of your specific means applicable in individual or related sciences. (Telescopes, microscopes, accelerators, etc.)
3. Application of specific methods of activity (see below about this).
4. Focus on the objective truth of knowledge, because if there is no truth, then there is no science. Truth is the highest value for which scientists work.
5. Organic connection with practice or focus on practice. The vital meaning of scientific daring is that the knowledge gained is necessary for people and serves them as a “guide to action.”
In addition to the listed signs of scientific knowledge, there are also such criteria as experimental verifiability, reproducibility, rigor and others.
Modern science is disciplinary organized. It includes various areas of knowledge that interact with each other and, at the same time, have relative independence. Science as a whole represents a complex developing system that generates more and more new relatively independent subsystems and new unifying (integrative) connections that determine the functioning of the scientific system as a single whole.
In the structure of scientific knowledge, there are two levels of knowledge - empirical and theoretical and, accordingly, two levels of knowledge (see below). The structure of scientific knowledge is not limited to these two levels, but also includes the foundations of scientific knowledge. This is most relevant when areas of specialized knowledge, especially those that are anti-scientific in nature, claim the status of science. The foundations of science include the ideals and norms of research, the scientific picture of the world, and philosophical foundations.
The ideals and norms of scientific knowledge express the value and goal orientations of science, since they contain the answer to the question of the necessity or unnecessaryness of certain cognitive actions. The ideal of true science is truth. The value of pseudoscience research activities is in proving non-existent foundations in the field of knowledge. This implies the difference in the approaches of science and pseudoscience to the norms of scientific knowledge. The norms of scientific research are inseparable from the ideal they are aimed at achieving and together form a method of activity to achieve the goal. Science is not afraid various forms evidence based on an objective approach. Pseudoscience follows the path of falsification. The most important requirement of science is that the method corresponds to the object being studied.
The second block of the foundations of science is the scientific picture of the world, as an integral system of connection between the achievements of fundamental and applied sciences, showing the place and role of any branch of scientific knowledge in a single functioning scientific whole.
The third block of the foundations of science is the philosophical ideas and principles on which the ideals and norms of science are based, as well as the substantive aspects of the scientific picture of the world. Philosophy ensures the inclusion of scientific knowledge in culture. A specific area of scientific knowledge is social (humanitarian) knowledge about society and the processes occurring in it, about man and the “human world”.
Humanitarian knowledge analyzes the activities of people, in which the material and the ideal, the objective and the subjective, the spontaneous and the conscious are organically intertwined. Because of this, humanitarian knowledge contains knowledge about the objective factors of the existence of man and society, as well as about the subjective element that makes the life of man and society different from the work of a unit subject to the laws of mechanics. Although the objective in social life passes through human consciousness and acquires a shade of subjectivity, it makes it possible to discover the laws of its functioning.
The laws of functioning (essence) of society are studied by the science of society, and shades of the objective with elements of subjectivity from various angles are analyzed by art, morality, religion, and legal consciousness.
One of the foundations of scientific knowledge are philosophical ideas and principles. It is these ideas and principles that serve as the methodology of science.
Methodology is a system of principles and methods for organizing theoretical and practical activities to achieve cognitive goals, as well as the doctrine of this system and the theory of the method. Based on the methodology, specific methods of a particular science are developed or used. Method, in the broadest sense of the word, is a method of activity not only in cognition, but also in any other field social life. In a narrow, epistemological sense, a method is a method of practical and theoretical human activity aimed at understanding an object.
The variety of types of human activity determines a diverse range of methods that can be qualified on a variety of grounds.
All methods of scientific knowledge, according to the degree of generality and scope of action, can be divided into three main groups: universal, general scientific and special.
Universal methods characterize the philosophical approach and are applicable in all spheres of human cognitive activity, taking into account their specificity. The content of universal methods are general philosophical approaches to understanding the world around us, man himself, his cognitive and transformative activities. Universal methods depend on the philosophical positions of the knowing subject.
General scientific methods are methods of cognition used in all sciences. Their objective basis is the general methodological laws of cognition, including epistemological principles. General scientific methods include observation and experiment methods, modeling method, hypothetico-deductive method, systemic and structural-functional approaches, etc.
Special (private scientific) methods are applicable only within the framework of individual (private) sciences. The objective basis of such methods are the laws and theories of special sciences. Special methods include methods of qualitative analysis in chemistry, the method of labeled atoms in biology, the method of spectral analysis in physics and chemistry, the method of statistical modeling in the study of systems, etc.
Scientific knowledge - This is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition associated with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of phenomenon.
Epistemology - This is the doctrine of scientific knowledge.
Features of scientific knowledge:
Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the focus of research on the general, essential properties of an object and their expression in a system of abstraction.
Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.
Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is oriented towards being embodied in practice.
Fourthly, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, and diagrams.
Fifthly, Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.
At sixth, Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.
Seventh, scientific knowledge requires and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.
Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by processuality. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related to each other.
Ninth, the field of scientific knowledge consists of verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena being.
Levels of scientific knowledge:
Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data about individual aspects and connections of the object, understanding and describing the data obtained in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of phenomenon, but the prerequisites for penetrating the essence of the object have already been created.
Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, not only identifying, but also explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.
Forms of scientific knowledge:
scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.
Scientific fact - this is the original form of scientific knowledge in which primary knowledge about the object; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of a fact of reality. Wherein scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.
Scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of a particular knowledge about an object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes the problematic issue, the project for solving the problem and its content.
Scientific hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that explains certain parameters of the object being studied and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object being studied, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.
In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not contradict the laws established in a given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that with their help it is possible to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of the hypothesis should not be logically contradictory.
The development of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problematic situations.
Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.
Types of evidence:
Practice serving as direct confirmation
Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments indicating facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.
The proven hypothesis serves as the basis for constructing a scientific theory.
Scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interconnected statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting phenomena in a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects is expressed. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.
All theories develop within certain paradigms.
Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and seeing the world, influencing the direction of further research. Paradigm
can be compared to an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.
Many theories are constantly being synthesized into a unified scientific picture of the world, that is, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Method(from Greek Metodos - path to something) - it is a way of activity in any form.
The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of goals, regulate human activity and the general principles from which these techniques arise. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of cognition at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object and the laws of its functioning.
Scientific method - This is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the logical cognition of an object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:
First reason. Based on their nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - techniques, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of action (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods - approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).
Second reason. By functional purpose they are distinguished:
a) universal human methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);
b) empirical methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);
c) theoretical level methods (modelling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).
Third base is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:
a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal - logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);
b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method(observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own problem, characteristic only for it;
c) special methods.
Some methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena to collect facts.
Experiment - is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object under controlled and controlled conditions.
Formalization is a reflection of the acquired knowledge in an unambiguous formalized language.
Axiomatic method - this is a way of constructing a scientific theory when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically deduced.
Hypothetico-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which explanations of scientific facts are ultimately derived.
Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:
similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon being studied have only one previous common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon being sought;
difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon we are interested in occurs and the case in which it does not occur are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;
accompanying change method: if the occurrence or change of a previous phenomenon each time causes the occurrence or change of another phenomenon accompanying it, then the first of them is probably the cause of the second;
residual method: If it is established that the cause of part of a complex phenomenon is not caused by known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this only circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.
Universal methods of thinking:
- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences between objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);
- Analysis- mental dissection of an object as a whole
(we break down each engine into its component characteristics);
- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements identified as a result of the analysis (mentally we combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);
- Abstraction- highlighting some features of an object and distracting from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);
- Induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and in the end - to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, we come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);
- Deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific (based on the general patterns of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);
- Modeling- construction mental subject(model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow us to obtain the information necessary for understanding the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);
- Analogy- conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, based on similarity in other characteristics (conclusion about engine breakdown based on a characteristic knock);
- Generalization- combining individual objects into a certain concept (for example, creating the concept “engine”).
The science:
- This is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and its systematization.
Scientific complexes:
A)Natural science is a system of disciplines whose object is nature, that is, a part of existence that exists according to laws not created by human activity.
b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of existence that is constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and humanities that study the values of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)
V)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.
G)Anthropological Sciences- this is a set of sciences about man in all his integrity: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.
In addition, sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which have a direct connection with industrial practice.
Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (a theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on a minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.
Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, systematicity (orderliness based on certain principles), and verifiability.
Models of science development:
theory of reproduction (proliferation) of P. Feyerabend, which asserts the chaotic origin of concepts, T. Kuhn's paradigm, conventionalism of A. Poincaré, psychophysics of E. Mach, personal knowledge of M. Polanyi, evolutionary epistemology of S. Toulmin, scientific research program by I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.
K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge - this is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement with better and more perfect ones. The position of T. Kuhn is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of “normal science” (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of the “scientific revolution” (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).
Global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.
Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions are distinguished. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second revolution refers to end of the XVIII - early XIX V. and marks the transition to disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution spans the period from late XIX until the middle of the twentieth century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-non-classical science is born.
Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:
1. Classic type of scientific rationality(XVIII–XIX centuries). At this time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was considered as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise, with the help of which all problems of mankind can be solved, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in rigid terms epistemological confrontation, the explanation was interpreted as a search for mechanical causes and substances. In classical science it was believed that only laws of the dynamic type could be genuine laws.
2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the irreducible presence of the subject in the processes being studied, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.
3. Post-non-classical type of scientific rationality(late XX - beginning of XXI V.). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes under study, the emergence of a value-based perspective on the study of problems, and a high degree of use of interdisciplinary approaches.
Science and Society:
Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with every decade the reverse influence of science on society increases. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming increasingly stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?
Firstly, Science is now overtaking the development of technology and is becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.
Secondly, Science permeates all spheres of public life.
Third, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on man himself, his development creativity, culture of thinking, to create material and spiritual prerequisites for its holistic development.
Fourthly, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true propositions. Concepts most often attributed to parascience: outdated scientific concepts, such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which played a certain historical role in the development of modern science; folk medicine and other “traditional”, but to a certain extent oppositional modern science teachings; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. “sciences”, which are examples of systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.
Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism asserts that with the help of natural and technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems
Second approach - antiscientism, Based on the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, he rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to exorbitantly absolutize science and to underestimate it.
Functions of modern science:
1. Cognitive;
2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);
3. Function of direct productive force;
4. Function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all problems of society).
Patterns of development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of “sharp change” (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.
The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.
Science and technology
Technique in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.
Technique in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material, energy and information devices and means created by society to carry out its activities.
basis philosophical analysis technology became the ancient Greek concept of “techne”, which meant skill, art, the ability to create something from natural material.
M. Heidegger believed that technology is a person’s way of being, a way of self-regulation. J. Habermas believed that technology unites everything “material” that opposes the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.
The way technology manifests itself is technology. If what a person influences with is technology, then how he influences is technology.
Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth’s shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to satisfy its needs.
Classification of equipment:
By type of activity distinguished: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, the learning process, medical, sports, household, military.
By type used natural process There are mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other types of equipment.
By level of structural complexity The following historical forms of technology arose: guns(manual labor, mental labor and human activity), cars And machine guns. The sequence of these forms of technology, in general, corresponds to the historical stages of the development of technology itself.
Trends in technology development at the present stage:
The sizes of many are constantly growing technical means. So, an excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now it is 170 cubic meters. Transport planes already carry 500 or more passengers, and so on.
A tendency of the opposite nature has emerged, towards a reduction in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc. has already become a reality.
Increasingly, technical innovations are achieved through the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example This is achieved by space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with its characteristic inventions. The fusion of science and technology into unified system, which radically changed the life of man, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).
There is an increasingly intensive merging of technical means into complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.
An important and constantly growing area of application modern technology and technology becomes the information field.
Informatization - is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.
Historical forms of informatization: colloquial speech; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); Computers (computers).
The widespread use of computers marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has unique property- when consumed, it does not contract, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources sharply accelerates the technological cycle “knowledge - production - knowledge”, causes an avalanche-like growth in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), and has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoneier, Y. Masuda) proclaimed the onset of the information society.
Signs of the information society:
Free access for anyone anywhere, at any time to any information;
The production of information in this society must be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;
Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;
Accelerated automation and operation;
Priority development of the sphere of information activities and services.
Undoubtedly, the information society brings certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an informational computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.
Human attitude towards technology:
On the one hand, facts and ideas of mistrust and hostility to technology. In Ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that when using technology you become dependent on it, you lose freedom of action and you yourself become a mechanism. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler, in his book “Man and Technology,” argued that man became a slave to machines and would be driven to death by them.
At the same time, the apparent indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unbridled apology for technology, a kind of ideology of technicalism. How is it shown? Firstly. In exaggerating the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in transferring the characteristics inherent in machines to humanity and personality. Proponents of technocracy see the prospects for progress in concentrating political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.
Consequences of the influence of technology on humans:
Beneficial component includes the following:
the widespread use of technology has contributed to an almost doubling of the average human life expectancy;
technology freed man from constraining circumstances and increased his free time;
new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms intellectual activity person;
technology has brought progress to the educational process; technology has increased the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.
Negative the impact of technology on humans and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to the life and health of people, threats have increased environmental disaster, the number of occupational diseases has increased;
a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, loses his creative essence; an increasing amount of information causes a decreasing trend in the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;
the technique can be used as effective remedy suppression, total control and manipulation of personality;
The impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous, both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the “symbol-image” chain with another “image-image”, which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the appearance of neuroses and mental illnesses.
Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its production and operation. Engineering activities - This is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its production and operation. Engineering activity emerged from technical activity in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.
SCIENCE AS THE MOST IMPORTANT FORM OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE MODERN WORLD
The concept of science, its main characteristics and functions
The problem of defining science is one of the most difficult in modern research in the theory of knowledge and philosophy of science. There are many definitions of science that capture one or another of its features.
Currently, in the philosophy and methodology of science, the idea of science as a phenomenon of social life has been established, the specificity of which is emphasized by indicating its main parameters:
1) science as a specific activity;
2) science as a knowledge system;
3) science as a social institution;
4) science as a productive force;
5) science as a form of social consciousness.
Science as a specific activitythis is a system of cognitive actions aimed at the production and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about natural, social and spiritual reality and knowledge itself. Specifics scientific activity is determined through the specifics of its subject, object and means.
Object of scientific activitya set of special idealized objects that are not given in everyday experience (ordinary cognitive activity masters only those objects that are directly included in the structure of a person’s practical activity in the course of everyday experience).
Subject of scientific activitya set of people with special vocational training; For this purpose, a special training system is created, which involves the subject mastering a large array of knowledge, abilities, skills and methods (in acts of everyday cognition, the subject is formed spontaneously through the acquisition of traditional skills of cognitive and practical activity).
Basic means of scientific and educational activities:
Material resources;
Conceptual and logical means (specialized languages and categorical systems, logical and methodological standards and standards for the organization of knowledge, its validity and objective truth);
Mathematical tools (systems mathematical languages and formulas designed to provide procedures for describing, explaining and predicting the phenomena and processes under study in accordance with the requirements of logical consistency, accuracy, and substantive certainty).
Distinctive features of scientific and educational activities:
- methodological reflection, aimed at understanding and constantly evaluating ongoing cognitive actions, as well as developing special methods and means of achieving objectively true knowledge about the reality under study;
Focus on obtaining a result in the form of new knowledge or information about the phenomenon being studied.
In structural terms, science as a specific activity is organized, first of all, according to the disciplinary principle, i.e. by identifying individual scientific disciplines, within which the content and sequence of cognitive actions are consistent with the characteristics of the object and subject of research, as well as the nature of the knowledge sought and the areas of its application. Along with the disciplinary organization of scientific activity, there are such forms as a field of research, where some parameters of related disciplines are combined, as well as program-targeted research aimed at solving complex problems (development of new energy sources, creation of new materials, exploration of the World Ocean, space and etc.).
Most broadly, we can distinguish three main units of measurement of science as an activity for the production and theoretical systematization of knowledge:
1) natural natural sciences;
2) humanitarian sciences about society and man;
3) technical science of artificial objects.
Within the framework of ideas about science as a specific activity, there are twomain types of scientific research:
- fundamental(research focused on increasing subject knowledge, recorded in the form of the most general ideas and laws);
Applied (research focused on increasing subject knowledge used directly to solve practical problems).
Within the framework of fundamental research, there are two types of research.
Basic research of the first type scientific developments, focused on developing the most general ideas about the reality under study and identifying its most general laws, i.e. to search for answers to the questions: how does the reality under study work, what is next beyond the boundaries of the known? The criteria for classifying scientific developments as fundamental research of the first type are:
Revision of the main provisions of this discipline;
Revision of its generally accepted methodological guidelines;
Research near the limiting values of the numerical parameters of the reality being studied;
Research in border areas;
Lack of explicit orientation towards the direct practical use of its results.
Basic research of the second type (oriented basic research) scientific developments, in which, in general, the goal is to find an optimal application solution for a large scientific, technical or social problem or provide theoretical justification for its solution. Examples: development studies nuclear fusion, creation of new generation computers, etc.
Science as a knowledge systemthis is a set of systematized and substantiated information about natural, social and spiritual reality.
In the course of cognition of reality, various knowledge is acquired about nature, man and society, about the goals and programs of human activity, etc. (scientific and non-scientific). (Knowledge is an objective reality given in the human mind). Distinctive feature scientific knowledge is that it represents information about the phenomena and processes of reality being studied, which must satisfy a number of criteria (the issue of criteria is discussed in the philosophy of science).Historical criteria of scientific knowledge(defined in order to capture historically specific forms of knowledge and distinguish them from protoscience):
Formal-logical consistency of knowledge;
Experienced Verifiability;
Evidence and validity;
Systematicity (establishing relationships, classification);
Reproducibility.
There are alsofunction-oriented criteria:
Logical criteria: consistency, completeness, independence of the original axioms, etc.;
Pragmatic: simplicity, practical relevance, instrumental effectiveness.
Science as a system of knowledge, as well as scientific activity, is organized, first of all, according to the disciplinary principle, that is, by distinguishing individual scientific disciplines depending on the object and subject of research. There are three main groups of sciences:natural; Humanities; technical.
Scientific knowledge includes three main levels:
1) empirical (observational data, empirical facts and laws);
2) theoretical (concepts, categories, principles, hypotheses, theories);
3) metatheoretical (scientific picture of the world, ideals and norms of scientific research, philosophical foundations of science).
Science as a social institutiona community of people engaged in scientific activities, organized in the system scientific institutions, united by certain principles and norms of professional communication, as well as forms of relationship with a specific historical type of society. Analysis of science as a social institution allows us to significantly complement the idea of it as a complex system relationships between scientists, the scientific community and various subsystems of society. As a social institution, science was formed in modern times. Registration of scientists in research organizations. As a result, in social structure a new element appears - the scientific community - a community of people professionally engaged in scientific work.
Currently, there are three sectors in the structure of science as a social institution:
1) academic (fundamental research predominates);
2) university (fundamental + applied);
3) sectoral (applied research predominates).
Along with those noted, non-traditional forms of organizing scientific activity are also used: specialized scientific centers, foundations, etc., often bringing together representatives of various sectors of science.
Currently, the global scientific community numbers about 5 million people.
Science as a productive forcean important component of the productive forces and a factor in their development towards the use of scientific knowledge in the development of new technologies, objects of labor and products of practical activities. Technologies based on science currently provide the production of over 90% of the social product. Based on scientific knowledge, new materials with specified properties have been created and are constantly being created. Their subsequent use in production as an object of labor ensures, on the one hand, further technological progress, and on the other hand, the necessary parameters and, in general, the desired quality of the final product.
Science as a form of social consciousnessreflection of reality in rationally ordered and systematized forms of knowledge. Fundamental sciences are of leading importance in this regard, where worldview issues periodically arise and are resolved. The style of thinking developed in science is important here as the most systematic and reflexively substantiated.
Basic social functions of science:
Cultural-worldview (science has a major influence on the formation of the worldview and value-cultural orientations of society; it largely determines the nature of objective ideas about the world and a person’s place in it, distinguishes a person as an active being who is in an active relationship to the world);
Direct productive force function ( practical use NTP; the functioning of production and its management are based on science);
Function of social power (use of science to regulate processes of social development (socio-economic programs));
Educational (cumulation and reproduction of scientific knowledge in educational systems and transmission of social experience).
Thus, based on the structural and functional analysis of science, various aspects of its content have been identified and recorded.
Science the sphere of socially organized cognitive activity in which the rational-conceptual development of reality is carried out, recorded in the system of objective, objective knowledge.
Specificity of scientific knowledge
Science is realized primarily in the sphere of cognitive actions.
Scientific knowledgea system of cognitive actions aimed at producing and theoretically systematizing knowledge about natural, social and spiritual reality.
Scientific knowledge as a specifically organized set of cognitive actions has a number of characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of organization:
1) This is a specialized form of cognitive activity, ideally aimed exclusively at the production of knowledge, often without specific ideas about possible areas and methods of its subsequent application.
2) The basis of cognitive actions is the clear identification of their object and subject. Science, unlike other types of cognition, is aimed at a substantive and objective study of reality (the study of objects as subject to objective laws of functioning and development the removal of personal and value aspects).
3) Predictiveness focus on predicting future events, states and properties of the objects under study. Science strives to create a foundation of knowledge for future forms of practical exploration of the world. Therefore, science carries out not only research that serves today’s practice, but also research whose results can only be used in the future. The movement of knowledge as a whole is determined not only by the immediate demands of today's practice, but also by cognitive interests through which the needs of society in predicting future methods and forms of practical exploration of the world are manifested. Example: the discovery of the laws of the electromagnetic field and the appearance of radio-electronic equipment.
4) Scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized tools:
Special material means (reagents, experimental installations, control devices, etc.), information processing and communication means, vehicles, power plants, etc.
Ideal means (theoretical objects, formalisms, sign-mathematical calculus, etc.).
5) Scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of methods and other types of normative knowledge (principles, ideals, norms, etc.). Along with the material means of scientific knowledge, they are included in the research tools of science, ensuring the reproducibility and controllability of cognitive actions, as well as obtaining a result that meets certain requirements.
6) Specialized language. Compared to the language of everyday communication, it is characterized by a higher degree of unambiguity of words and expressions, greater compactness, accuracy and consistency of rules.
7) The results of cognitive actions organized in the form of scientific knowledge, i.e. knowledge must meet a number of requirements:
Objectivity (display of phenomena and patterns of reality as they exist outside and independently of the will and opinions of the knowing subject);
Logical validity (inclusion in the system of previously acquired knowledge and compatibility with it based on logical principles);
Systematicity;
Reproducibility,
Controllability of receiving paths.
Scientific and extra-scientific knowledge
In its functioning, scientific knowledge is constantly influenced by extra-scientific knowledge. Character traits extra-scientific knowledge:
Fuzzy identification of the subject and means of cognitive actions (multi-subject, mosaic);
Situational;
Low degree of generality and predictability of the result.
Target subordination.
There are various classifications of extra-scientific cognition and knowledge. As a rule, they are built on the basis of historical-genetic and systemic-functional criteria of differentiation.
According to the first criterion, such forms of cognitive activity are identified that arose and took shape in culture even before the formation of science. These include:
Everyday practical knowledge, in which everyday experience is recorded and the logic of common sense is revealed;
Game cognition, focused on the development of a person’s creative and communicative abilities, implemented on the basis of conventionally accepted rules and goals and having a teaching and developmental character;
Artistic;
Religious;
Mythological;
Moral (the last three are regulated through traditions and provide prescription knowledge).
The second criterion allows us to identify such forms of extra-scientific cognition and knowledge that arose in the wake of science’s own development, such as paranormal, pseudoscientific, quasi-scientific, anti-scientific, deviant, etc. They are distinguished by the fact that they exist largely thanks to science and strive to use its principles of organization and tools , duplicate its social functions
Parascience teachings about secret phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of scientific criteria (extrasensory perception, telepathy).
Pseudoscientific knowledge is a form of interpretation of events and phenomena that are actually studied by science, but have not yet received adequate explanations in accordance with the logical and methodological standards and standards accepted in science (UFOs, etc.).
Pseudoscience. Content error: a false position is presented as true or vice versa (the result of the process of cognition as an imposition existing system concepts to new spheres of reality, or deliberate lies). Formal error (violation of the rules of logic) paralogisms and sophisms.
Quasi-science knowledge based on methods of violence and coercion.
Antiscience deliberate distortion of ideas about reality.
Deviant scientific knowledge cognitive structures in science that have not yet received universal recognition in the scientific community and have not been approved in accordance with the dominant methodological standards in it.
Such types of extra-scientific knowledge and knowledge have existed as long as science. However, nowadays they have acquired special significance thanks to the media. Reasons for this:
Negative consequences of scientific and technical progress;
Inappropriately high cost of a number of scientific projects;
Constantly increasing the barrier separating the scientific, technical and humanitarian intelligentsia.
The question of the role of extra-scientific knowledge in the construction of scientific knowledge systems. The relation of knowledge to reality?
Philosophy of science as a form of reflective understanding of scientific knowledge
The study of science is characterized by a variety of forms, genres and styles of its description and interpretation. The influence of the traditions of philosophical analysis of knowledge on the forms and methods of modern science.
Conventionally, the entire body of knowledge about science and the main directions of its study and research can be divided into three blocks:
1) disciplinary studies of science (history of science, sociology of science, psychology of science, logic of science, etc.);
2) interdisciplinary research of science (so-called science studies);
3) philosophical and methodological analysis of scientific knowledge, on the basis of which it develops philosophy of science as a form of systematic understanding of the phenomenon of science in its historical dynamics and functioning in the modern sociocultural environment.
Philosophy of Science. Two meanings:
1) a set of epistemological concepts about the nature, functions and dynamics of scientific knowledge;
2) a systematically organized body of knowledge about the logical-cognitive, methodological and sociocultural aspects of the existence of science as a specific component of modern culture.
Main directions of philosophy of science:
Analysis of the structure of science presented in different forms its existence (science as an activity, knowledge and social institution);
Study of the main functions of science in various sociocultural systems and the peculiarities of its existence in modern society;
Studying the problem of the growth of knowledge and the dynamics of science in the era of scientific revolutions and during periods of its “normal” existence;
Axiological problems of science, within the framework of which numerous issues of its relationship and dialogue with society and various elements of culture are considered.
Some authors argue that the main task of the philosophy of science is to find the relationship between philosophy and particular sciences, which is called the foundations of science (ontological, epistemological, methodological, value).
The formation of the philosophy of science is associated with the positivism of the 19th century. Briefly the essence. Positivist the program receives further development and interpretation in empirio-criticism, the conventionalism of J. Poincaré and P. Duhem, the instrumentalism of J. Dewey and P. Bridgman. Positive knowledge. Conventionalism.
The next step is a neo-positivist program (G. Frege, B. Russell, logical positivism of the “Vienna Circle”). Features verificationism, physicalism, strict demarcation of scientific knowledge and metaphysics. The foundations of neopositivism boiled down to the following:
1) The provisions of “metaphysics” (traditional philosophy) are pseudo-problems; they are devoid of scientific meaning. Philosophy has no subject at all.
2) Scientific knowledge is of empirical origin, with the exception of the provisions of logic and mathematics.
3) The laws and rules of logic and mathematics are conventional in nature, representing the result of a conditional agreement between scientists.
4) Philosophy is not a science, but a type of activity that boils down to the analysis of natural and artificial languages, pursuing two goals: a) to expel from science meaningless reasoning and pseudo-problems, to show their meaninglessness, to explore their origins, rooted in the imperfection of language and its misuse; b) ensure the construction of ideal logical models of meaningful reasoning.
The main philosophical method of logical positivism is expressed inprinciple of verificationand is formulated as follows: scientific meaning has those sentences that directly or indirectly allow them to be reduced to statements that record the direct sensory experience of an individual or the protocol records of a scientist (protocol sentences). The protocol sentence is a judgment of the type “... in such a place, at such a time, under such circumstances, such and such is observed.” In other words, you need to compare sentences with empirical reality, indicate the conditions under which they will be true or false. If we cannot indicate how a proposition should be verified, then it has no scientific meaning. One can, for example, easily establish that a sentence like “It’s raining outside” is quite meaningful, because it is easy to indicate a method for checking it: look out the window. Thus, truth, according to supporters of this position, consists in the correspondence of a statement to a fact. The sentence “The human soul is immortal” is devoid of any scientific meaning, since no method of empirical verification can be specified. In accordance with the principle of verification, logical positivists declared the statements of traditional philosophy meaningless, since they cannot be verified by experience or proven (or refuted) by logical analysis.
Next stagefallibilist modelscientific knowledge (falsificationism of K. Popper, NIP methodology of I. Lakatos). Science is unable to provide reliable, or at least probabilistic, knowledge. Our knowledge is based not only on reliable concepts, but also on numerous guesses and various explanations, which must be subject to constant testing. But not a single test achieves the final goal and each theory should be considered as a guess that has received some confirmation. During the next test, any scientific truth can reveal its falsity in a new context, and the principle of verification will not help here. In essence, the procedure of verification as a logical justification of some statements with the help of others leads to unlimited regress, because this procedure can only increase the degree of probability of our subjective beliefs in our own rightness. Therefore, it is necessary to use a more unambiguous procedure falsification. If a discrepancy is found between theory and experience, then this indicates the falsity of its conclusions, which must be derived from the sphere of theory. The principle of falsification appears as the basis of self-criticism of science, a means of minimizing errors and achieving truth. However, K. Popper considered this methodological procedure not as an end in itself, but only as an ability of theory, hypothesis, etc. be subject to critical analysis. All knowledge has only a conjectural, hypothetical character (the principle of fallibilism).
Since the 1960-1970s. distributed byhistoricist and relativist approachin philosophy of science (T. Kuhn, S. Toulmin, P. Feyerabend, J. Holton, etc.). But the history of science convincingly shows that the methods and procedures adopted in it very rarely corresponded to the ideal of self-criticism that Popper talks about(Thomas Kuhn). Science in its own way historical development goes through three stages: pre-paradigm, paradigm (normal) and extraordinary (non-paradigm science stage of the scientific revolution). At the first stage, science is an eclectic combination of various mutually contradictory hypotheses and scientific groupings. In conditions of fierce competition, numerous models of reality are created, from among which, at a certain stage of development, one theory stands out as an example of the scientific solution of theoretical problems, and its fundamental principles, methods and values, certainly shared by the scientific community, form a paradigm. It sets the type of objects and methods of knowing them and at the same time rejects all facts and theories that conflict with it. At this stage of normal science, facts are collected and accumulated, experiments are conducted on the basis and in accordance with the dominant paradigm, the boundaries of application of scientific theory are expanded, and attempts are made to solve unsolved problems. This is a period of normal development of science, when the basic laws of an object are open and comprehended and knowledge is accumulated and the boundaries within which open laws operate are sought. In this process, “anomalous” phenomena are identified that do not fit into the accepted paradigm. This gives rise to a crisis in scientific theory, causes scientific revolution, in the process of which science comes to a new creative synthesis and the formulation of a new paradigm.
“Methodological anarchism” by P. Feyerabend.
ABSTRACT ON PHILOSOPHY
on the topic of:
SCIENCE AS A SPECIAL FORM OF KNOWLEDGE OF REALITY
Completed by: Lieutenant Timakov D.S.
Tver 2006
Introduction
This work is devoted to one of the many problems of philosophy, namely: science as a form of knowledge of reality. Here we will describe various approaches to understanding this problem in different years, as well as the properties and functions of science as they were seen by people at different stages of the development of society.
The first part is devoted to the consideration of science as a system that has its own properties and functions. Next, questions of the specificity and generality of cognition will be considered both by individual groups of people and by society as a whole.
The third part will describe scientific truth as a social phenomenon. The fourth part presents the basic universal principles and general scientific methods of cognition and their description.
In the final, fifth part, the dynamics of the development of worldviews of an opposite nature will be briefly examined: the view of science as an integral part of the culture of a developing society and the view of this problem from opponents of solving cultural issues using scientific methods.
1. Systematicity of the phenomenon of science
Science is a specific form of activity (both in theoretical and practical spheres) associated with the formation of relatively objective, systematic and proven knowledge about spiritual and material reality.
Science is one of the defining subsystems of culture. By the beginning of the 21st century. there are more than 800 of its definitions, because every major scientist (thinker) gives his own interpretation of the phenomenon of science.
If we clarify this rather general definition, then we should distinguish several areas of scientific activity that specify it. Namely:
– identification of not external, but essential characteristics of reality;
– formation of a logically consistent system of knowledge about the objective picture of the world;
– forecasting the state of real objects and processes based on identified natural and social laws;
– creation and development of special means of cognitive activity (mathematical methods, research equipment, etc.);
– the spread of a special type of professional activity (scientists, engineers, etc.) in the sphere of social division of labor;
– the functioning of a special system of organizations and institutions involved in the acquisition, storage, dissemination and implementation of acquired knowledge (libraries, information centers, etc.).
The terms “science” (“science”) and “scientist” (“scientist”) arose in the first half of the 19th century. in European university practice. They designated activities in the field of mathematics, physics, chemistry and other natural sciences. The term “social science” was later used for activities in the field of social sciences.
In the process of the genesis and development of scientific knowledge, attention to its classification increased. Let us note some milestones in this process.
The first classifications of science arose in the era of antiquity. Aristotle (384-422 BC) divided philosophy (as a single science) into “theoretical philosophy”, “practical philosophy” and “creative philosophy”. Moreover, he divides “theoretical philosophy” into physical, mathematical and theological philosophy; on poetics and rhetoric. Logic is interpreted as a propaedeutic (introduction) to the entire system of sciences.
In modern times, F. Bacon (1561-1626) developed a classification of sciences based on contemporary material. Human knowledge was divided into three areas (spheres), namely: history (memory), poetry (fantasy) and philosophy (reason). At the same time, the identified areas of knowledge were subjected to further detail.
Representatives of the French Enlightenment (Diderot, 1713-1784; and others), within the framework of the “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts,” highlighted mechanics, physics, chemistry, physiology, etc.
A. de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) proposed classifications of sciences by analogy with the class structure of society (slave and feudal society - theology, capitalism - positivism, etc.).
O. Comte (1798-1857) developed the doctrine of “three stages” of the development of science, namely: theological, metaphysical and positive. Moreover, each of the known sciences sequentially goes through, in his opinion, the marked stages. Not only the natural sciences (astronomy, physics, biology, etc.), but also the humanities—sociology—go through the corresponding stages.
The fundamental classification of science (philosophy) was proposed by Hegel (1770-1831). Namely: “real philosophy” is divided by him into “philosophy of nature” and “philosophy of spirit”. “Philosophy of Nature” includes mechanics, physics, organic physics. “Philosophy of spirit” is divided into “subjective spirit” (anthropology, phenomenology, psychology), “objective spirit” (law, morality, ethics) and “absolute spirit” (art, religion, philosophy).
By the 20th century, the following system of sciences had developed:
–natural science (natural sciences) – a system of scientific knowledge about nature;
– technical knowledge (technical sciences) – a system of scientific knowledge about technical systems; sciences focused on the implementation of natural science knowledge;
– human studies (social and human sciences) – a system of scientific knowledge about man and society and the socio-cultural environment of his habitat.
In this case we are talking about the “horizontal” dimension of the phenomenon of science. Within the framework of the “vertical” dimension, sciences are distinguished fundamental and applied.
Fundamental sciences are a system of knowledge about the deepest properties of objective reality, associated with the formation of a scientific picture of the world, which, as a rule, does not have a practical orientation. Applied sciences, on the contrary, are considered as a system of knowledge that has a pronounced subject-practical orientation.
Fundamental sciences are associated with identifying the basic patterns and principles of the development of nature. Traditional research at this level is carried out not due to external (social) needs, but due to internal (immanent) incentives. Therefore, at their core, fundamental sciences do not have a clearly expressed practical orientation. In this sense, axiological (value) neutrality is associated with them. At the same time, discoveries in the fundamental sciences have a fundamental impact on the formation of the natural science picture of the world, changing the paradigm (main characteristics) of scientific thinking. It is in the fundamental sciences that basic models of cognition are developed, concepts, principles and laws that form the foundations of applied sciences are identified.
Applied sciences, based on the results of fundamental research, focus on solving specific technical and technological problems related to the interests of society. Sciences at this level are ambivalent, i.e. Depending on the area of application, they can be used both for the benefit of a person and have a negative impact on him and his environment. In other words, applied sciences also include value content.
On the one hand, the range of ideas, theories and concepts coming from the field of fundamental sciences to the field of applied research leads to the transformation of applied sciences. This circumstance, in turn, requires the “fundamentalization” of applied sciences. On the other hand, applied sciences actively influence fundamental sciences, increasing the degree of their “practicalization”.
Firstly, the means and methods of instrumental knowledge of nature are being improved. And, secondly, when developing applied problems, new ideas and methods often arise. Thus, the development of the technology of acceleration of elementary particles made it possible to substantiate and test theoretical ideas about the fundamental laws of the microworld. Moreover, relevant research has led to the discovery of new elementary particles and the identification of patterns of their formation, which has significantly advanced the understanding of the deep processes of the microworld that determine the evolution of the Universe.
The development of science is an objective process, which is characterized by an orientation towards internal immanent (from the Latin immanentis - characteristic, inherent) conditions. The formation of natural science, technical knowledge and human knowledge increasingly reveals its historical dependence on external conditions (social, economic, cultural, etc.).
In other words, the process of interconnection and interaction of sciences is intensifying. Historically, several forms of relationship and interaction between various scientific disciplines have been identified. Let us designate some levels of integrativeness of science.
Adjacent integrativeness. The relationship of scientific disciplines genetically and historically interacting with each other (physical chemistry, biophysics, economic mathematics, etc.)
Intercontiguous integrativity. The interrelation of scientific disciplines, both one cycle (natural science) and interrelated (for example, bionics is based not only on biology and physics, but also on technical sciences).
Targeted integrativeness. The interaction of scientific disciplines of different cycles and profiles is carried out to implement the target setting corresponding to a particular science (for example, cybernetics combines not only mathematics or biology, but also systems theory, management methodology, sociology, etc.).
Problematic integrativeness. The interrelation of various areas of scientific knowledge occurs in the process of solving a specific problem; the degree of integrativeness is a function of its level - from local to global (for example, solving a global environmental problem requires the “involvement” of all areas of natural science, technical knowledge and human science).
These trends in science also correlate with its functions. Several functions of science are noted. Let's highlight some of them, namely: research, teaching, communication, sociocultural and ideological.
Research function. Science, studying a specific reality, discovers its new sides and qualities, reveals more and more effective methods of cognition, etc. The purpose of scientific research is to analyze the patterns of objective reality.
Educational function. Within its framework, the reproduction of scientific knowledge is carried out - the transfer of scientific ideas from one research system to another. This is carried out in the process of training scientific personnel (through the education system, scientific schools, etc.), which ensures the continuity of the development of science, as well as the formation of new scientific traditions.
Communication function. This is a process of information exchange between members of the scientific community, which includes publications, conferences, discussions, etc. As a result, the relationship of the scientific community is strengthened, the awareness and efficiency of research activities increases.
Sociocultural function. Science is one of the basic elements of culture that forms the basis of civilization. The level and nature of the development of science is a significant factor that fixes the status of society in the dynamics of the historical process. The development of science is a criterion for the positive dynamism of civilization.
Worldview function. The overall development of science forms the foundations of a scientific worldview, that is, a system of principles, beliefs and ideas that determine a holistic approach to objective reality. In an extremely generalized form, the scientific worldview is associated with the rational attitude of man (subject) to nature (object).
At various stages of social development, certain functions of science dominated. For example, in the ancient period the emphasis was placed on its ideological functions (spontaneously dialectical form of worldview); in the medieval period - the teaching function (during this period science was concentrated mainly in universities); in the conditions of modern times, the research function of science developed (the formation of a modern type of scientific knowledge). special material production link Abstract >> Computer Science
Here the material world appears, the objective reality, with which it interacts and which... cards, recipes and others forms information directly consumed in... did not exist at all Sciences How special activities. Cognition the surrounding world...
Philosophy and methodology Sciences
Study Guide >> PhilosophyPhilosophy, methodology and logic Sciences, as well as philosophical theory knowledge. Research Sciences How special social phenomenon(community... of truth. This forms rational consciousness is characterized by the pathos of maximum attention to reality. If from the point...
Sociocultural and institutional nature Sciences
Textbook >> SociologyCan the science How special form consciousness to be basic... critical attitude towards traditional forms knowledge. Rationality in this sense... How subject knowledge into the system Sciences. It became clear that in science we are not dealing with a picture reality How ...
Concept of philosophy How about the type of worldview.
Abstract >> PhilosophyWhat is philosophy How special the science, claiming to be a substantive study special spheres reality, not... 1. Diversity forms knowledge. 2. Subject and object knowledge. 3. Truth How target knowledge. 4. The science How specialized form knowledge. The term "...