Ivan 3rd Vasilyevich was born on January 22, 1440. He was the son of Moscow Prince Vasily 2nd the Dark and the daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky - Maria Yaroslavna. Prince Ivan the 3rd is better known under the names Ivan the Holy and Ivan the Great. IN short biography Ivan the 3rd must be mentioned that from a very young age he helped his blind father. In an effort to make the new order of transfer of power legal, Vasily the 2nd named his son Ivan Grand Duke during his lifetime. All letters of that time were drawn up on behalf of the two princes. Already at the age of seven, Ivan Vasilyevich was engaged to the daughter of Prince Boris of Tver, Maria. It was planned that this marriage would become a symbol of reconciliation between the rival principalities of Tver and Moscow.
For the first time, Prince Ivan 3rd Vasilyevich led the army at the age of 12 years. And the campaign against the Ustyug fortress turned out to be more than successful. After his victorious return, Ivan married his bride. Ivan III Vasilyevich made a victorious campaign in 1455, directed against the Tatars who had invaded Russian borders. And in 1460 he was able to close the Tatar army’s path to Rus'.
The prince was distinguished not only by his lust for power and perseverance, but also by his intelligence and prudence. It was the great reign of Ivan the 3rd that became the first for a long time, which did not begin with a trip to receive a label in the Horde. Throughout the entire period of his reign, Ivan the 3rd strove to unite the northeastern lands. By force or with the help of diplomacy, the prince annexed to his lands the territories of Chernigov, Ryazan (partially), Rostov, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Dimitrovsk, Bryansk, etc.
The domestic policy of Ivan the 3rd was focused on the fight against the princely-boyar aristocracy. During his reign, a restriction was introduced on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another. This was allowed only during the week before and the week after St. George's Day. Artillery units appeared in the army. From 1467 to 1469, Ivan 3rd Vasilyevich led military actions aimed at subjugating Kazan. And as a result, he made her a vassal. And in 1471 he annexed the lands of Novgorod to the Russian state. After military conflicts with Principality of Lithuania in 1487-1494 and 1500-1503 The territory of the state was expanded by annexing Gomel, Starodub, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh, Toropets, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky. Crimea during this period remained an ally of Ivan the 3rd.
In 1472 (1476) Ivan the Great stopped paying tribute to the Horde, and the Standing on the Ugra in 1480 marked the end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. For this, Prince Ivan received the nickname Saint. The reign of Ivan the 3rd saw the flourishing of chronicles and architecture. Such architectural monuments as the Faceted Chamber and the Assumption Cathedral were erected.
The unification of many lands required the creation of a unified legal system. And in 1497 the Code of Laws was created. The code of law of Ivan the 3rd united legal norms previously reflected in the statutory charters, as well as in individual decrees of Ivan the Great's predecessors.
Ivan the 3rd was married twice. In 1452 he married the daughter of the Tver prince, who died at the age of thirty. According to some historians, she was poisoned. From this marriage there was a son, Ivan Ivanovich (Young).
In 1472 he married the Byzantine princess Sophia Palaeologus, niece of Constantine 9th, the last Byzantine emperor. This marriage brought the prince sons Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon and Andrey. It is worth noting that the second marriage of Ivan the 3rd caused great tension at court. Some of the boyars supported Ivan the Young, the son of Maria Borisovna. The second part provided support to the new Grand Duchess Sophia. At the same time, the prince accepted the title of Sovereign of All Rus'.
After the death of Ivan the Young, the great Ivan 3rd crowned his grandson Dmitry. But Sophia's intrigues soon led to a change in the situation. (Dmitry died in prison in 1509) Before his death, Ivan the 3rd proclaimed his son as his heir. Prince Ivan 3rd died on October 27, 1505.
Years of life: January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505
Reign: 1462-1505
From the Rurik dynasty.
The son of the Moscow prince and Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky, granddaughter of the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo V.A. Serpukhovsky.
Also known as Ivan the Great, Ivan Saint.
Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505.
Biography of Ivan the Great
He was born on the day of remembrance of the Apostle Timothy, so he received his baptismal name in his honor - Timothy. But thanks to the upcoming church holiday - the transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom, the prince received the name by which he is best known.
From a young age, the prince became an assistant to his blind father. He 
took an active part in the fight against Dmitry Shemyaka, went on hikes. In order to legitimize the new order of succession to the throne, Vasily II named the heir Grand Duke during his lifetime. All letters were written on behalf of the 2 great princes. In 1446, the prince, at the age of 7, became engaged to Maria, the daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich Tverskoy. This future marriage was supposed to become a symbol of the reconciliation of eternal rivals - Tver and Moscow.
Military campaigns play an important role in raising the heir to the throne. In 1452, the young prince was already sent by the nominal head of the army on a campaign against the Ustyug fortress of Kokshengu, which was successfully completed. Returning from the campaign with a victory, he married his bride, Maria Borisovna (June 4, 1452). Soon Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned, and the bloody civil strife that had lasted for a quarter of a century began to subside.
In 1455, young Ivan Vasilyevich made a victorious campaign against the Tatars who had invaded Rus'. In August 1460, he became the head of the Russian army, which closed the path to Moscow to the advancing Tatars of Khan Akhmat.
Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilievich
By 1462, when the Dark One died, the 22-year-old heir was already a man of many 
experienced, ready to solve various government issues. He was distinguished by prudence, lust for power and the ability to steadily move towards his goal. Ivan Vasilyevich marked the beginning of his reign by issuing gold coins with the minted names of Ivan III and his son, the heir to the throne. Having received the right to a great reign according to the spiritual charter of his father, for the first time since the invasion of Batu, the Moscow prince did not go to the Horde to receive a label, and became the ruler of a territory of approximately 430 thousand square meters. km.
Throughout the reign the main goal foreign policy The country was the unification of north-eastern Rus' into a single Moscow state.
Thus, by diplomatic agreements, cunning maneuvers and force, he annexed the Yaroslavl (1463), Dimitrov (1472), Rostov (1474) principalities, the Novgorod land, the Tver principality (1485), the Belozersk principality (1486), the Vyatka (1489), part of the Ryazan, Chernigov, Seversk, Bryansk and Gomel lands.
The ruler of Moscow mercilessly fought against the princely-boyar opposition, establishing tax rates that were collected from the population in favor of the governors. The noble army and nobility began to play a greater role. In the interests of the noble landowners, a restriction was introduced on the transfer of peasants from one master to another. Peasants received the right to move only once a year - a week before the autumn St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after St. George's Day. Under him, artillery appeared as an integral part of the army.
Victories of Ivan III Vasilievich the Great
In 1467 - 1469 successfully carried out military operations against Kazan, eventually achieving its vassalage. In 1471, he made a campaign against Novgorod and, thanks to the attack on the city in several directions carried out by professional warriors, during the Battle of Shelon on July 14, 1471, he won the latter feudal war in Rus', including the Novgorod lands into the Russian state.
After the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487 - 1494; 1500 - 1503), many Western Russian cities and lands went to Rus'. According to the Truce of Annunciation in 1503, the Russian state included: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh.
Successes in the expansion of the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries. In particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate, with Khan Mengli-Girey, while the agreement directly named the enemies against whom the parties had to act together - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In subsequent years, the Russian-Crimean alliance showed its effectiveness. During the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503. Crimea remained an ally of Russia.
In 1476, the ruler of Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Khan of the Great Horde, which was supposed to lead to a clash between two long-time opponents. On October 26, 1480, the “standing on the Ugra River” ended with the actual victory of the Russian state, gaining the desired independence from the Horde. For the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke in 1480, Ivan Vasilyevich received the nickname Saint among the people.
The unification of previously fragmented Russian lands into single state urgently demanded the unity of the legal system. In September 1497, the Code of Law was put into effect - a unified legislative code, which reflected the norms of such documents as: Russian Truth, Charter Charters (Dvinskaya and Belozerskaya), Pskov Judicial Charter, a number of decrees and orders.
The reign of Ivan Vasilyevich was also characterized by large-scale construction, the erection of temples, the development of architecture, and the flourishing of chronicles. Thus, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), the Faceted Chamber (1491), and the Annunciation Cathedral (1489) were erected, 25 churches were built, and intensive construction of the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlin was carried out. Fortresses were built in Ivangorod (1492), in Beloozero (1486), in Velikiye Luki (1493).
The appearance of a double-headed eagle as a state symbol of the Moscow State on the seal of one of the charters issued in 1497 Ivan III Vasilievich symbolized the equality of ranks of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Grand Duke of Moscow.
Was married twice:
1) from 1452 to Maria Borisovna, daughter of the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich (died at the age of 30, according to rumors, was poisoned): son Ivan the Young
2) from 1472 on the Byzantine princess Sophia Fominichna Palaeologus, niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI
sons: Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey
daughters: Elena, Feodosia, Elena and Evdokia
Marriages of Ivan Vasilyevich
The marriage of the Moscow sovereign with the Greek princess was important event in Russian history. He opened the way for connections between Muscovite Rus' and the West. Soon after this, he was the first to receive the nickname Terrible, because for the princes of the squad he was a monarch, demanding unquestioning obedience and strictly punishing disobedience. At the first order of Ivan the Terrible, the heads of unwanted princes and boyars were laid on the chopping block. After his marriage, he took the title "Sovereign of All Rus'".
Over time, Ivan Vasilyevich's second marriage became one of the sources of tension at court. Two groups of court nobility emerged, one of which supported the heir to the throne - Young (son from his first marriage), and the second - the new Grand Duchess Sophia Paleologue and Vasily (son from his second marriage). This family feud, during which hostile political parties, intertwined with the church issue - about measures against Judaizers.
Death of Tsar Ivan III Vasilyevich
At first, Grozny, after the death of his son Molodoy (died of gout), crowned his son and his grandson, Dmitry, on February 4, 1498 in the Assumption Cathedral. But soon, thanks to skillful intrigue on the part of Sophia and Vasily, he took their side. On January 18, 1505, Elena Stefanovna, Dmitry’s mother, died in captivity, and in 1509, Dmitry himself died in prison.
In the summer of 1503, the Moscow ruler became seriously ill, he became blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg occurred. Leaving his business, he went on a trip to the monasteries.
On October 27, 1505, Ivan the Great died. Before his death, he named his son Vasily as his heir.
The Sovereign of All Rus' was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
Historians agree that this reign was extremely successful, it was under him Russian state by the beginning of the 16th century it took honorable international situation, standing out with new ideas, cultural and political growth.
Ivan III Vasilyevich the Great. Detailed description life and state activities of the Grand Duke of All Rus'. Marriage with the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologus, double-headed eagle - new coat of arms Russia, the fall of the Horde yoke, the construction of the modern Kremlin, its cathedrals, the construction of the bell tower of Ivan the Great. Moscow - the Third Rome, a new ideology of the strengthening Moscow state.
Ivan III Vasilyevich VELIKY. Grand Duke of All Rus', reigned from 1450 to 1505. Childhood and youth of Ivan the Great.In 1425 he died in Moscow Grand Duke Vasily I Dmitrievich. He left the great reign to his young son Vasily, although he knew that his younger brother, Prince of Galicia and Zvenigorod Yuri Dmitrievich, would not accept this. Yuri justified his rights to the throne with the words of the spiritual letter (i.e., will) of Dmitry Donskoy: “And because of sin, God will take away my son Prince Vasily, and whoever is under that will be my son (i.e., Vasily’s younger brother), then Prince Vasilyev inheritance." Could Grand Duke Dmitry know, when drawing up his will in 1380, when his eldest son was not yet married, and the rest were just teenagers, that this carelessly thrown phrase would become the spark that would ignite the flame of internecine warfare? In the struggle for power that began after the death of Vasily Dmitrievich, there was everything: mutual accusations, mutual slander at the khan’s court, and armed clashes. The energetic and experienced Yuri captured Moscow twice, but in the mid-30s. XV century he died on the princely throne at the moment of his triumph. However, the turmoil did not end there. Yuri's sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka - continued the fight. In such times of wars and unrest, the future “sovereign of all Rus'” was born. Absorbed in the whirlpool of political events, the chronicler dropped only a meager phrase: “A son, Ivan, was born to the Grand Duke on January 22” (1440).
On July 7, 1445, the Moscow regiments were defeated in a battle with the Tatars at the Spaso-Evfimiev Monastery near Suzdal, and the courageously fighting Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich II, Ivan’s father, was captured. To top off the troubles, a fire broke out, consuming all the wooden buildings in Moscow. The orphaned grand-ducal family was leaving the terrible burning city... Vasily II returned to Rus' after paying a huge ransom, accompanied by a Tatar detachment. Moscow was seething, dissatisfied with the extortions and the arrival of the Tatars. Part of the Moscow boyars, merchants and monks made plans to enthronement Dmitry Shemyaka, the greatest enemy of the Grand Duke. In February 1446, taking with him his sons Ivan and Yuri, the Grand Duke went on a pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, apparently hoping to sit it out. Having learned about this, Dmitry Shemyaka easily captured the capital. His ally, Prince Ivan Andreevich Mozhaisky, rushed to the monastery. The captured Grand Duke was brought to Moscow in a simple sleigh, and three days later he was blinded. Vasily Vasilyevich II began to be called the Dark One. While these tragic events were happening to his father, Ivan and his brother took refuge in a monastery with secret supporters of the deposed Grand Duke. Their enemies forgot about them, or maybe they simply didn’t find them. After the departure of Ivan Mozhaisky, faithful people transported the princes first to the village of Boyarovo - the Yuryevsk patrimony of the Ryapolovsky princes, and then to Murom. So Ivan, still a six-year-old boy, had to experience and survive a lot.
In Tver, with Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich, the family of exiles found shelter and support. And again Ivan became a participant in a big political game. The Grand Duke of Tver agreed to help not disinterestedly. One of his conditions was the marriage of Ivan Vasilyevich with Princess Maria of Tver. And it doesn’t matter that the future groom is only six years old, and the bride even younger. Soon the betrothal took place, in the majestic Transfiguration Cathedral it was performed by Bishop Elijah of Tver. The stay in Tver ended with the reconquest of the burning Kremlin, the road into the unknown. These are the first vivid impressions of Ivan’s childhood. And in Murom, without knowing it, he played a major political role. He became a visible symbol of resistance, a banner under which all who remained faithful to the overthrown Vasily the Dark flocked. Shemyaka also understood this, which is why he ordered Ivan to be taken to Pereyaslavl. From there he was brought to his father in Uglich, in captivity. Together with other family members, Ivan Vasilyevich witnessed the execution of his father’s cunning plan, who, having barely arrived in Vologda (the inheritance granted to him by Shemyaka), rushed to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery in Moscow in February 1447. A year ago, hastily leaving Moscow, he left for the unknown scared boy; now the official heir to the throne, the future son-in-law of the powerful Tver prince, was entering the capital with his father.
Vasily the Dark was relentlessly haunted by anxiety for the future of his dynasty. He himself suffered too much and therefore understood that in the event of his death, the throne could become a bone of contention not only between the heir and Shemyaka, but also between him, Vasily, his own sons. The best way out is to proclaim Ivan the Grand Duke and co-ruler of his father. Let his subjects get used to seeing him as their master, let his younger brothers grow up in the confidence that he is their lord and sovereign by right; Let the enemies see that government is in good hands. And the heir himself had to feel like a crown bearer and comprehend the wisdom of ruling a state. Could this be the reason for his future successes? But Shemyaka again managed to escape the chase. Having thoroughly robbed the local Kokshari tribe, the Moscow army returned home. In the same year, the time came to fulfill the long-standing promise of twinning the Moscow and Tver grand ducal houses. “That same summer, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich got married on the 4th of June, on the eve of Trinity Day.” A year later, Dmitry Shemyaka unexpectedly died in Novgorod. Rumor claimed that he was poisoned in secret. Already in 1448, Ivan Vasilyevich was titled Grand Duke in the chronicles, just like his father.
Long before ascending the throne, many levers of power find themselves in the hands of Ivan Vasilyevich; he carries out important military and political assignments. In 1448, he was in Vladimir with an army covering the important southern direction from the Tatars, and in 1452 he set off on his first military campaign. It was last trip times of dynastic struggle. Shemyaka, powerless for a long time, harassed with small raids, dissolving into the vast northern expanses in case of danger. Having led the campaign against Kokshenga, the 12-year-old Grand Duke had to catch his enemy on the instructions of Vasily II. But be that as it may, another page of history has turned, and for Ivan Vasilyevich, childhood has ended, which contained so many dramatic events that no other person has experienced in his entire life. Since the early 50s. XV century and until the death of his father in 1462, Ivan Vasilyevich, step by step, mastered the difficult craft of a sovereign. Little by little, the threads of control converged into his hands complex system, in the very heart of which was the capital city of Moscow, the most powerful, but not yet the only center of power in Rus'. From this time, letters sealed with Ivan Vasilyevich’s own seal have survived to this day, and the names of two great princes - father and son - appeared on the coins. After the Grand Duke's campaign in 1456 against Novgorod the Great, in the text of the peace treaty concluded in the town of Yazhelbitsy, Ivan's rights were officially equal to the rights of his father. Novgorodians were supposed to come to him to express their “grievances” and seek “resolution.” Ivan Vasilyevich also has another important duty: to protect Moscow lands from uninvited guests - Tatar detachments. Three times - in 1454, 1459 and 1460. - the regiments led by Ivan advanced towards the enemy and forced the Tatars to retreat, causing them damage. On February 15, 1458, a joyful event awaited Ivan Vasilyevich: his first child was born. They named their son Ivan. The early birth of an heir gave confidence that the strife would not be repeated, and the “paternal” (i.e., from father to son) principle of succession to the throne would triumph.
The first years of the reign of Ivan III.
At the end of 1461, a conspiracy in Moscow was discovered. Its participants wanted to free the Serpukhov prince Vasily Yaroslavich, who was languishing in captivity, and maintained contact with the camp of emigrants in Lithuania - political opponents of Vasily II. The conspirators were captured. At the beginning of 1462, during Lent, they were given a painful execution. Bloody events against the background of repentant Lenten prayers marked a change of eras and the gradual onset of autocracy. Soon, on March 27, 1462, at 3 am, Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark died. There was now a new sovereign in Moscow - 22-year-old Grand Duke Ivan. As always at the moment of transfer of power, external opponents perked up, as if they wanted to make sure whether the young sovereign was firmly holding the reins of power in his hands. The Novgorodians have not fulfilled the terms of the Yazhelbitsky Treaty with Moscow for a long time. The Pskovites expelled the Moscow governor. In Kazan, Khan Ibrahim, who was unfriendly to Moscow, was in power. Vasily the Dark in his spiritual directly blessed his eldest son with “his fatherland” - a great reign.
Since Batu subjugated Rus', the thrones of the Russian princes were controlled by the Horde ruler. Now no one asked his opinion. Akhmat, the khan of the Great Horde, who dreamed of the glory of the first conquerors of Rus', could hardly come to terms with this. It was also restless in the grand ducal family itself. The sons of Vasily the Dark, the younger brothers of Ivan III, received, according to their father’s will, almost as much as the Grand Duke inherited, and were dissatisfied with this. In such a situation, the young sovereign decided to act assertively. Already in 1463, Yaroslavl was annexed to Moscow. Local princes, in exchange for possessions in the Yaroslavl principality, received lands and villages from the hands of the Grand Duke. Pskov and Novgorod, dissatisfied with the overbearing hand of Moscow, were easily able to find mutual language. In the same year, German regiments entered the Pskov borders. Pskovites turned to Moscow and Novgorod for help at the same time. However, the Novgorodians were in no hurry to help their “younger brother.” The Grand Duke did not allow the arriving Pskov ambassadors to see him for three days. Only after this did he agree to change his anger to mercy. As a result, Pskov received a governor from Moscow, and its relations with Novgorod sharply worsened. This episode best demonstrates the methods with which Ivan Vasilyevich usually achieved success: he tried first to separate and quarrel his opponents, and then make peace with them one by one, while achieving favorable conditions for himself. The Grand Duke went to military conflicts only in exceptional cases, when all other means had been exhausted. Already in the first years of his reign, Ivan knew how to play a subtle diplomatic game. In 1464, the arrogant Akhmat, the ruler of the Great Horde, decided to go to Rus'. But at the decisive moment, when the Tatar hordes were ready to pour into Rus', the troops of the Crimean Khan Azy-Girey struck them in the rear. Akhmat was forced to think about his own salvation. This was the result of an agreement reached in advance between Moscow and Crimea.
Fight with Kazan.
A conflict with Kazan was inevitably approaching. The fighting was preceded by long preparations. Since the time of Vasily II, the Tatar prince Kasym lived in Rus', who had undoubted rights to the throne in Kazan. It was he who Ivan Vasilyevich intended to establish in Kazan as his protege. Moreover, the local nobility persistently invited Kasym to take the throne, promising support. In 1467, the first campaign of Moscow regiments against Kazan took place. It was not possible to take the city on the move, and the Kazan allies did not dare to take the side of the besiegers. To top it all off, Kasym died soon after. Ivan Vasilyevich urgently had to change his plans. Almost immediately after the unsuccessful expedition, the Tatars made several raids on Russian lands. The Grand Duke ordered to strengthen the garrisons in Galich, Nizhny Novgorod and Kostroma and began preparing a large campaign against Kazan. All layers of the Moscow population and lands subject to Moscow were mobilized. Individual regiments consisted entirely of Moscow merchants and townspeople. The Grand Duke's brothers led the militias of their domains. The army was divided into three groups. The first two, led by governors Konstantin Bezzubtsev and Prince Pyotr Vasilyevich Obolensky, converged near Ustyug and Nizhny Novgorod. The third army of Prince Daniil Vasilyevich Yaroslavsky moved to Vyatka. According to the Grand Duke’s plan, the main forces should have stopped before reaching Kazan, while the “willing people” (volunteers) and the detachment of Daniil of Yaroslavl were supposed to make the khan believe that the main blow should be expected from this side. However, when they began to call out those who wanted to, almost the entire army of Bezzubtsev volunteered to go to Kazan. Having plundered the outskirts of the city, this part of the Russian regiments found themselves in a difficult situation and was forced to fight their way to Nizhny Novgorod. As a result, the main goal was again not achieved. But Ivan Vasilyevich was not the type to accept failure. In September 1469, the new Moscow army under the command of the brother of the Grand Duke, Yuri Vasilyevich Dmitrevsky, again approached the walls of Kazan. The “ship’s” army also took part in the campaign (that is, the army loaded onto river ships). Having besieged the city and cut off the access to water, the Russians forced Khan Ibrahim to capitulate, “took the world with all their will” and achieved the extradition of the “full” - compatriots languishing in captivity.
Conquest of Novgorod.
New alarming news came from Novgorod the Great. By the end of 1470, the Novgorodians, taking advantage of the fact that Ivan Vasilyevich was absorbed first by internal problems and then by the war with Kazan, stopped paying duties to Moscow and again seized the lands that they had renounced under an agreement with the former great princes. In the veche republic, the party oriented toward Lithuania has always been strong. In November 1470, the Novgorodians accepted Mikhail Olelkovich as prince. In Moscow there was no doubt that behind him stood the rival of the Moscow sovereign in Rus' - the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir IV. Ivan Vasilyevich believed that the conflict was inevitable. But he would not be himself if he immediately entered into armed confrontation. For several months, until the summer of 1471, active diplomatic preparations were underway. Thanks to the efforts of Moscow, Pskov took an anti-Novgorod position. The main patron of the free city was Casimir IV. In February 1471, his son Vladislav became the Czech king, but in the struggle for the throne he had a powerful competitor - the Hungarian sovereign Matthew Corvinus, who was supported by the Pope and the Livonian Order. Vladislav would not have been able to stay in power without his father’s help. The far-sighted Ivan Vasilyevich waited for almost six months, without starting hostilities, until Poland was drawn into the war for the Czech throne. Casimir IV did not dare to fight on two fronts. Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat also did not come to the aid of Novgorod, fearing an attack by Moscow’s ally, the Crimean Khan Hadzhi Giray. Novgorod was left alone with the formidable and powerful Moscow. In May 1471, a plan for an offensive against the Novgorod Republic was finally developed. It was decided to strike from three sides in order to force the enemy to split up his forces. “That same summer... the prince and his brethren went with all their might to Novgorod the Great, fighting and captivating on all sides,” the chronicler wrote about this. It was terrible dryness, and this made the usually impassable swamps near Novgorod quite surmountable for the grand ducal regiments. All North-Eastern Rus', obedient to the will of the Grand Duke, converged under his banner. Allied armies from Tver, Pskov, Vyatka were preparing for the campaign, regiments were arriving from the possessions of Ivan Vasilyevich’s brothers. Riding in the convoy was the clerk Stefan the Bearded, who could speak from memory using quotes from Russian chronicles. This “weapon” was very useful later in negotiations with the Novgorodians. The Moscow regiments entered the Novgorod borders in three streams. A 10,000-strong detachment of Prince Daniil Kholmsky and governor Fyodor the Lame acted on the left flank. The regiment of Prince Ivan Striga Obolensky was sent to the right flank to prevent the influx of fresh forces from eastern possessions Novgorod. In the center, at the head of the most powerful group, was the sovereign himself.
The times are irrevocably gone when in 1170 “free men” - the Novgorodians - completely defeated the army of the Moscow prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. As if yearning for those times, at the end of the 15th century. an unknown Novgorod master created an icon depicting that glorious victory. Now everything was different. On July 14, 1471, a 40,000-strong army - all that they could muster in Novgorod - clashed in battle with the detachment of Daniil Kholmsky and Fyodor the Lame. As the chronicle narrates, “... the Novgorodians soon fled, driven by the wrath of God... The regiments of the Grand Duke chased after them, stabbed them and flogged them.” The posadniks were captured and the text of the treaty with Casimir IV was found. In it, in particular, there were the following words: “And the great prince of Moscow will go to Veliky Novgorod, for you, our honest lord king, will mount a horse for Veliky Novgorod against the great prince.” The Moscow Sovereign was furious. The captured Novgorodians were executed without pity. The embassies arriving from Novgorod asked in vain to calm the anger and begin negotiations. Only when Archbishop Theophilus of Novgorod arrived at the Grand Duke’s headquarters in Korostyn did the Grand Duke heed his pleas, having previously subjected the ambassadors to a humiliating procedure. At first, the Novgorodians beat the Moscow boyars with their foreheads, they, in turn, turned to Ivan Vasilyevich’s brothers so that they beg the sovereign himself. The rightness of the Grand Duke was proven by references to the chronicles that the clerk Stefan the Bearded knew so well. On August 2, the Korostyn Treaty was concluded. From now on, Novgorod's foreign policy was completely subordinate to the will of the Grand Duke. Veche letters were now issued on behalf of the Moscow sovereign and sealed with his seal. For the first time he was recognized as the supreme judge in the affairs of hitherto free Novgorod. This masterfully carried out military campaign and diplomatic success made Ivan Vasilyevich a true “sovereign of all Rus'.”
On September 1, 1471, he entered his capital in victory to the enthusiastic cries of Muscovites. The rejoicing continued for several days. Everyone felt that the victory over Novgorod would raise Moscow and its sovereign to previously unattainable heights. On April 30, 1472, the ceremonial laying of the new Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin took place. It was supposed to become a visible symbol of Moscow's power and unity of Rus'. In July 1472, Khan Akhmat reminded himself of himself, who still considered Ivan III his “ulusnik,” i.e. subjects. Having deceived the Russian outposts that were waiting for him on all roads, he suddenly appeared under the walls of Aleksin, a small fortress on the border with the Wild Field. Akhmat besieged and set fire to the city. The brave defenders chose to die, but did not lay down their arms. Once again a terrible danger loomed over Russia. Only the union of all Russian forces could stop the Horde. Approaching the banks of the Oka, Akhmat saw a majestic picture. In front of him stretched “many regiments of the Grand Duke, like a wavering sea, and the armor on them was pure and great, like shining silver, and the weapons were great.” After some thought, Akhmat ordered to retreat...
Marriage to Sophia Poleolog.
The first wife of Ivan III, Princess Maria Borisovna of Tver, died on April 22, 1467. And on February 11, 1469, ambassadors from Rome appeared in Moscow - from Cardinal Vissarion. They came to the Grand Duke to propose that he marry Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, who lived in exile after the fall of Constantinople. For the Russians, Byzantium was for a long time the only Orthodox kingdom, a stronghold of the true faith. The Byzantine Empire fell under the blows of the Turks, but, having become related to the dynasty of its last “basileus” - emperors, Rus', as it were, declared its rights to the legacy of Byzantium, to the majestic spiritual role that this power once played in the world. Soon, Ivan’s representative, an Italian in the Russian service Gian Battista della Volpe (Ivan Fryazin, as he was called in Moscow), went to Rome. In June 1472, in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, Ivan Fryazin became engaged to Sophia on behalf of the Moscow sovereign, after which the bride, accompanied by a magnificent retinue, went to Rus'. In October of the same year, Moscow met its future empress. The wedding ceremony took place in the still unfinished Assumption Cathedral. The Greek princess became the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Vladimir and Novgorod. A glimpse of the thousand-year-old glory of the once mighty empire illuminated young Moscow.
Crowned rulers almost never have quiet days. Such is the lot of the sovereign. Soon after the wedding, Ivan III went to Rostov to visit his sick mother and there received news of the death of his brother Yuri. Yuri was only a year younger than the Grand Duke. Returning to Moscow, Ivan III decides to take an unprecedented step. In violation of ancient custom, he annexes all the lands of the deceased Yuri to the great reign, without sharing with his brothers. An open break was brewing. It was their mother, Maria Yaroslavna, who managed to reconcile the sons that time. According to the agreement they concluded, Andrei Bolshoy (Uglitsky) received the city of Romanov on the Volga, Boris - Vyshgorod, Andrei Menshoi - Tarusa. Dmitrov, where the late Yuri reigned, remained with the Grand Duke. For a long time, Ivan Vasilyevich cherished the idea of achieving an increase in his power at the expense of his brothers - the appanage princes. Shortly before the campaign against Novgorod, he proclaimed his son Grand Duke. According to the Korostyn Treaty, the rights of Ivan Ivanovich were equal to the rights of his father. This raised the heir to unprecedented heights and excluded the claims of Ivan III's brothers to the throne. And now another step was taken, laying the foundation for new relations between members of the grand ducal family. On the night of April 4-5, 1473, Moscow was engulfed in flames. Severe fires, alas, were not uncommon. That night Metropolitan Philip passed away into eternity. His successor was Bishop Gerontius of Kolomna. The Assumption Cathedral, his favorite brainchild, briefly outlived the late Bishop. On May 20, the walls of the temple, which was almost completed, collapsed. The Grand Duke decided to start building a new shrine himself. On his instructions, Semyon Ivanovich Tolbuzin went to Venice, who negotiated with the skilled stone, foundry and cannon master Aristotle Fioravanti. In March 1475, the Italian arrived in Moscow. He led the construction of the Assumption Church, which still adorns Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin.
Marching “in peace” to Veliky Novgorod. The end of the veche republic
Defeated, but not completely subjugated, Novgorod could not help but bother the Grand Duke of Moscow. On November 21, 1475, Ivan III arrived in the capital of the veche republic “in peace.” Everywhere he accepted gifts from residents, and with them complaints about the arbitrariness of the authorities. The “wild people” - the veche elite led by Bishop Theophilus - organized a magnificent meeting. Feasts and receptions continued for almost two months. But even here, the sovereign must have noticed which of the boyars was his friend and which was a hidden “enemy.” On November 25, representatives of Slavkova and Mikitina streets filed a complaint with him about the arbitrariness of senior Novgorod officials. After the trial, posadniks Vasily Onanin, Bogdan Esipov and several other people, all leaders and supporters of the “Lithuanian” party, were captured and sent to Moscow. The pleas of the archbishop and the boyars did not help. In February 1476, the Grand Duke returned to Moscow. The star of Novgorod the Great was inexorably approaching sunset. The society of the veche republic has long been divided into two parts. Some stood for Moscow, others looked hopefully towards King Casimir IV. In February 1477, Novgorod ambassadors arrived in Moscow. Welcoming Ivan Vasilyevich, they called him not “Mr.,” as usual, but “Sovereign.” At that time, such an address expressed complete submission. Ivan III immediately took advantage of this circumstance. The boyars Fyodor Khromoy, Ivan Tuchko Morozov and clerk Vasily Dolmatov went to Novgorod to inquire what kind of “state” the Novgorodians wanted from the Grand Duke. A meeting was held at which the Moscow ambassadors outlined the essence of the matter. Supporters of the “Lithuanian” party heard what was being said and threw accusations of treason at the boyar Vasily Nikiforov, who had visited Moscow, in the face: “Perevetnik, you visited the Grand Duke and kissed his cross against us.” Vasily and several other active supporters of Moscow were killed. Novgorod was worried for six weeks. The ambassadors were told of their desire to live with Moscow “in the old way” (i.e., preserve Novgorod freedom). It became clear that a new campaign could not be avoided. But Ivan III, as usual, was in no hurry. He understood that every day the Novgorodians would become increasingly mired in mutual squabbles and accusations, and the number of his supporters would begin to grow under the impression of an impending armed threat.
When the Grand Duke set out from Moscow at the head of the united forces, the Novgorodians could not even gather regiments to try to repel the attack. The young Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich was left in the capital. On the way to headquarters, Novgorod embassies kept arriving in hopes of starting negotiations, but they were not even allowed to see the sovereign. When no more than 30 km remained to Novgorod, Archbishop Theophilus of Novgorod himself arrived with the boyars. They called Ivan Vasilyevich “sovereign” and asked to “put aside anger” against Novgorod. However, when it came to negotiations, it turned out that the ambassadors did not clearly understand the current situation and demanded too much. The Grand Duke and his troops walked across the ice of Lake Ilmen and stood under the very walls of the city. Moscow armies besieged Novgorod on all sides. Every now and then reinforcements arrived. The Pskov regiments with cannons, the brothers of the Grand Duke with their army, and the Tatars of the Kasimov prince Daniyar arrived. Theophilus, in Once again who visited the Moscow camp, the answer was given: “We, the Grand Duke, our sovereign, will delight our fatherland Novgorod to beat us with our foreheads, and they know, our fatherland, how... to beat us with our foreheads.” Meanwhile, the situation in the besieged city noticeably worsened. There was not enough food, pestilence began, and internecine squabbles intensified. Finally, on December 7, 1477, in response to a direct question from the ambassadors about what kind of “state” Ivan III wanted in Novgorod, the Moscow sovereign replied: “We want our state like in Moscow, our state is like this: there will not be a veche bell in our fatherland in Novgorod, there will not be a mayor be, but we should keep our state like we have on the lower land.” These words sounded like a verdict to the Novgorod veche freemen. The territory of the state being assembled by Moscow has increased several times. The annexation of Novgorod is one of the most important results of the activities of Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus'.
Standing on the Ugra River. The end of the Horde yoke.
On August 12, 1479, a new cathedral in the name of the Dormition of the Mother of God was consecrated in Moscow, conceived and built as an architectural image of a unified Russian state. “That church was wonderful in its majesty and height, lightness and sonority and space, the same had never been seen in Rus' before, other than (besides) the Vladimir Church...” exclaimed the chronicler. Celebrations on the occasion of the consecration of the cathedral lasted until the end of August. Tall, slightly stooped, Ivan III stood out in the elegant crowd of his relatives and courtiers. Only his brothers Boris and Andrey were not with him. However, less than a month had passed since the start of the festivities, when a menacing omen of future troubles shook the capital. On September 9, Moscow unexpectedly caught fire. The fire quickly spread, approaching the walls of the Kremlin. Everyone who could came out to fight the fire. Even the Grand Duke and his son Ivan the Young put out the flames. Many who were afraid, seeing their great princes in the scarlet reflections of the fire, also began to put out the fire. By morning the disaster was stopped. Did the tired Grand Duke then think that in the glow of the fire the most difficult period of his reign began, which would last about a year? It is then that everything that has been achieved over decades of painstaking government work will be put at stake.
Rumors reached Moscow about a brewing conspiracy in Novgorod. Ivan III went there again “in peace.” He spent the rest of the autumn and most of the winter on the banks of the Volkhov. One of the results of his stay in Novgorod was the arrest of Archbishop Theophilus of Novgorod. In January 1480, the disgraced ruler was sent under escort to Moscow. The Novgorod opposition suffered a significant blow, but the clouds continued to thicken over the Grand Duke. For the first time in many years, the Livonian Order attacked the lands of Pskov with large forces. Vague news came from the Horde about the preparation of a new invasion of Rus'. At the very beginning of February, another bad news came - the brothers of Ivan III, princes Boris Volotsky and Andrei Bolshoi, decided to openly revolt and broke from obedience. It was not difficult to guess that they would look for allies in the person of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir and, perhaps, even Khan Akhmat - the enemy from whom the most terrible danger to the Russian lands came. Under the current conditions, Moscow's assistance to Pskov became impossible. Ivan III hastily left Novgorod and went to Moscow. The state, torn apart by internal unrest, was doomed in the face of external aggression. Ivan III could not help but understand this, and therefore his first move was the desire to resolve the conflict with his brothers. Their discontent was caused by the Moscow sovereign's systematic attack on the appanage rights of semi-independent rulers that belonged to them, which had their roots in times of political fragmentation. The Grand Duke was ready to make big concessions, but could not cross the line beyond which the revival of the former appanage system, which had brought so many disasters to Rus' in the past, began. The negotiations that began with the brothers reached a dead end. Princes Boris and Andrei chose Velikiye Luki, a city on the border with Lithuania, as their headquarters and negotiated with Casimir IV. He agreed with Kazimir and Akhmat on joint actions against Moscow.
Ivan III tears up the Khan's letter
In the spring of 1480, it became clear that it would not be possible to reach an agreement with the brothers. During these same days, terrible news came - the Khan of the Great Horde, at the head of a huge army, began a slow advance towards Rus'. Khan was in no hurry, waiting for the promised help from Casimir. “That same summer,” the chronicle narrates, “the ill-famed Tsar Akhmat... went against Orthodox Christianity, against Rus', against the holy churches and against the Grand Duke, boasting of destroying the holy churches and captivating all Orthodoxy and the Grand Duke himself, as under Batu Besha (was). It was not in vain that the chronicler remembered Batu here. An experienced warrior and ambitious politician, Akhmat dreamed of the complete restoration of Horde rule over Russia. The situation was becoming critical. In a series of bad news, there was one encouraging thing that came from Crimea. There, at the direction of the Grand Duke, Ivan Ivanovich Zvenets of Zvenigorod went there, who had to conclude an alliance agreement with the warlike Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey at any cost. The ambassador was given the task of obtaining a promise from the khan that, in the event of Akhmat’s invasion of the Russian borders, he would strike him in the rear or at least attack the lands of Lithuania, distracting the king’s forces. The goal of the embassy was achieved.
The agreement concluded in Crimea became an important achievement of Moscow diplomacy. A gap was made in the ring of external enemies of the Moscow state. The approach of Akhmat forced the Grand Duke to make a choice. You could lock yourself in Moscow and wait for the enemy, hoping for the strength of its walls. In this case, a huge territory would be in the power of Akhmat and nothing could prevent the union of his forces with the Lithuanian ones. There was another option - to move the Russian regiments towards the enemy. This is exactly what Dmitry Donskoy did in 1380. Ivan III followed the example of his great-grandfather. At the beginning of summer, large forces were sent to the south under the command of Ivan the Young and brother Andrei the Lesser, loyal to the Grand Duke. Russian regiments deployed along the banks of the Oka, thereby creating a powerful barrier on the way to Moscow. On June 23, Ivan III himself set out on a campaign. On the same day, the miraculous icon of the Vladimir Mother of God was brought from Vladimir to Moscow, with whose intercession the salvation of Rus' from the troops of the formidable Tamerlane was associated in 1395.
During August and September, Akhmat searched for a weak point in the Russian defense. When it became clear to him that the Oka was tightly guarded, he undertook a roundabout maneuver and led his troops to the Lithuanian border, hoping to break through the line of Russian regiments near the mouth of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Ivan III, concerned about the unexpected change in the khan’s intentions, urgently went to Moscow “for council and the Duma” with the metropolitan and boyars. A council was held in the Kremlin. Metropolitan Gerontius, the mother of the Grand Duke, many of the boyars and high clergy spoke out in favor of decisive action against Akhmat. It was decided to prepare the city for a possible siege. Moscow suburbs were burned, and their inhabitants were resettled inside the fortress walls. No matter how difficult this measure was, experience suggested that it was necessary: in the event of a siege, the wooden buildings located next to the walls could serve the enemy as fortifications or material for the construction of siege engines. On the same days, ambassadors from Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Volotsky came to Ivan III, who announced the end of the rebellion. The Grand Duke granted forgiveness to the brothers and ordered them to move with their regiments to the Oka. Then he left Moscow again.
Meanwhile, Akhmat tried to cross the Ugra, but his attack was repulsed by the forces of Ivan the Young. The battles for the crossings continued for several days, which also did not bring success to the Horde. Soon the opponents took up defensive positions on opposite banks of the river. The famous “standing on the Ugra” began. Skirmishes broke out every now and then, but neither side dared to launch a serious attack. In this situation, negotiations began. Akhmat demanded that the Grand Duke himself, or his son, or at least his brother, come to him with an expression of humility, and also that the Russians pay the tribute they owed for several years. All these demands were rejected and negotiations broke down. It is quite possible that Ivan went towards them, trying to gain time, since the situation was slowly changing in his favor. The forces of Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Volotsky were approaching. Mengli-Girey, fulfilling his promise, attacked the southern lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. On these same days, Ivan III received a fiery message from Archbishop of Rostov Vassian Rylo. Vassian urged the Grand Duke not to listen to the crafty advisers who “never stop whispering in his ear... deceptive words and advising... not to resist the adversaries,” but to follow the example of the former princes, “who not only defended the Russian land from the filthy (i.e. that is, not Christians), but they also subjugated other countries.” “Just take heart and be strong, my spiritual son,” the archbishop wrote, “like a good warrior of Christ, according to the great word of our Lord in the Gospel: “You are the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep..."
Winter was coming. The Ugra froze and from a water barrier every day more and more turned into a strong ice bridge connecting the warring parties. Both the Russian and Horde commanders began to become noticeably nervous, fearing that the enemy would be the first to decide on a surprise attack. The preservation of the army became the main concern of Ivan III. The cost of taking reckless risks was too great. In the event of the death of the Russian regiments, the road to the very heart of Rus' was opened for Akhmat, and King Casimir IV would not fail to take advantage of the opportunity and enter the war. There was also no confidence that the brothers and the recently subordinated Novgorod would remain loyal. And the Crimean Khan, seeing the defeat of Moscow, could quickly forget about his allied promises. Having weighed all the circumstances, Ivan III in early November ordered the withdrawal of Russian forces from Ugra to Borovsk, which in winter conditions represented a more advantageous defensive position. And then the unexpected happened! Akhmat, deciding that Ivan III was giving up the coast to him for a decisive battle, began a hasty retreat, similar to flight. Small Russian forces were sent in pursuit of the retreating Horde. Ivan III with his son and the entire army returned to Moscow, “and rejoiced, and all the people rejoiced greatly with great joy.” Akhmat a few months later was killed in the Horde by conspirators, sharing the fate of another unsuccessful conqueror of Rus' - Mamai.
To contemporaries, the salvation of Rus' seemed like a miracle. However, Akhmat’s unexpected flight also had earthly reasons, which were not limited to a chain of military accidents that were lucky for Rus'. The strategic plan for the defense of Russian lands in 1480 was well thought out and clearly implemented. The diplomatic efforts of the Grand Duke prevented Poland and Lithuania from entering the war. The Pskovites also made their contribution to the salvation of Rus', stopping the German offensive by the fall. And Rus' itself was no longer the same as in the 13th century, during the invasion of Batu, and even in the 14th century. - in the face of Mamaia's hordes. The semi-independent principalities at war with each other were replaced by a strong, although not yet fully strengthened internally, Moscow state. Then, in 1480, it was difficult to assess the significance of what happened. Many recalled the stories of their grandfathers about how, just two years after the glorious victory of Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field, Moscow was burned by the troops of Tokhtamysh. However, history, which loves repetitions, took a different path this time. The yoke that weighed on Russia for two and a half centuries has ended.
Conquest of Tver and Vyatka.
Five years after “standing on the Ugra,” Ivan III took another step towards the final unification of the Russian lands: the Tver principality was included in the Russian state. Long gone are the days when the proud and brave Tver princes argued with the Moscow ones about who should Rus' collects them. History resolved their dispute in favor of Moscow. However, Tver remained for a long time one of the largest Russian cities, and its princes were among the most powerful. Quite recently, the Tver monk Thomas wrote enthusiastically about his Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich (1425-1461): “I searched a lot in the books of wisdom and among the existing kingdoms, but nowhere did I find either among the kings a king, or among the princes of a prince who would was like this Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich... And truly it behooves us to rejoice, seeing him, Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich, a glorious reign, filled with much autocracy, for those who submit receive honor from him, and those who disobey receive execution!”
Boris Alexandrovich's son Mikhail no longer had either the power or brilliance of his father. However, he understood well what was happening in Rus': everything was moving towards Moscow - voluntarily or involuntarily, voluntarily or yielding to force. Even Novgorod the Great - and he could not resist the Moscow prince and parted with his veche bell. And the Tver boyars - don’t they run one after another to serve Ivan of Moscow?! Everything is moving towards Moscow... Will it not be his turn one day, the Grand Duke of Tver, to recognize the Muscovite’s power over himself?.. Lithuania has become Mikhail’s last hope. In 1484, he concluded an agreement with Casimir, which violated the points of the previously reached agreement with Moscow. The spearhead of the new Lithuanian-Tver union was clearly directed towards Moscow. In response to this, in 1485, Ivan III declared war on Tver. Moscow troops invaded Tver lands. Casimir was in no hurry to help his new ally. Unable to resist alone, Mikhail swore that he would no longer have any relations with the enemy of Moscow. However, soon after the conclusion of peace, he broke his oath. Having learned about this, the Grand Duke gathered a new army that same year. Moscow regiments approached the walls of Tver. Mikhail secretly fled the city. The people of Tver, led by their boyars, opened the gates to the Grand Duke and swore allegiance to him. The independent Grand Duchy of Tver ceased to exist. In 1489, Vyatka, a remote and largely mysterious land beyond the Volga for modern historians, was annexed to the Russian state. With the annexation of Vyatka, the work of collecting Russian lands that were not part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was completed. Formally, only Pskov and the Grand Duchy of Ryazan remained independent. However, they were dependent on Moscow. Located on the dangerous borders of Rus', these lands often needed military assistance from the Grand Duke of Moscow. The authorities of Pskov have not dared to contradict Ivan III on anything for a long time. Ryazan was ruled by the young Prince Ivan, who was the Grand Duke’s grand-nephew and was obedient to him in everything.
Successes of Ivan III's foreign policy.
By the end of the 80s. Ivan finally accepted the title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'.” This title has been known in Moscow since the 14th century, but it was during these years that it became official and turned from a political dream into reality. Two terrible disasters - political fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar yoke - are a thing of the past. Achieving the territorial unity of the Russian lands was the most important result of the activities of Ivan III. However, he understood that he could not stop there. The young state needed to be strengthened from within. The security of its borders had to be ensured. The problem of the Russian lands that fell into last centuries under the rule of Catholic Lithuania, which from time to time increased pressure on its Orthodox subjects. In 1487, the grand ducal army made a campaign against the Kazan Khanate - one of the fragments of the collapsed Golden Horde. The Kazan Khan recognized himself as a vassal of the Moscow state. Thus, peace was ensured on the eastern borders of Russian lands for almost twenty years. The children of Akhmat, who owned the Great Horde, could no longer gather under their banner an army comparable in number to the army of their father. The Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey remained an ally of Moscow, and friendly relations with him were further strengthened after in 1491, during the campaign of Akhmat’s children to the Crimea, Ivan III sent Russian regiments to help Mengli.
Relative calm in the east and south allowed the Grand Duke to turn to solving foreign policy problems in the west and north-west. The central problem here remained the relationship with Lithuania. As a result of two Russian-Lithuanian wars (1492-1494 and 1500-1503), dozens of ancient Russian cities were included in the Moscow state, including such large ones as Vyazma, Chernigov, Starodub, Putivl, Rylsk, Novgorod- Seversky, Gomel, Bryansk, Dorogobuzh, etc. The title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'” was filled with new content in these years. Ivan III proclaimed himself sovereign not only of the lands subject to him, but also of the entire Russian Orthodox population who lived on lands that were once part of Kievan Rus. It is no coincidence that Lithuania refused to recognize the legitimacy of this new title for many decades. By the beginning of the 90s. XV century Russia has established diplomatic relations with many countries of Europe and Asia. The Grand Duke of Moscow agreed to speak with both the Holy Roman Emperor and the Sultan of Turkey only as an equal. The Moscow state, the existence of which few people in Europe knew about just a few decades ago, quickly gained international recognition.
Internal transformations.
Within the state, the remnants of political fragmentation gradually died away. Princes and boyars, who until recently had enormous power, were losing it. Many families of the old Novgorod and Vyatka boyars were forcibly resettled to new lands. In the last decades of the great reign of Ivan III, the appanage principalities finally disappeared. After the death of Andrei the Lesser (1481) and the cousin of the Grand Duke Mikhail Andreevich (1486), the Vologda and Vereisko-Belozersky appanages ceased to exist. The fate of Andrei Bolshoi, the appanage prince of Uglitsky, was sad. In 1491 he was arrested and accused of treason. The elder brother recalled to him the rebellion in the difficult year for the country in 1480, and his other “non-corrections.” Evidence has been preserved that Ivan III subsequently repented of how cruelly he treated his brother. But it was too late to change anything - after two years in prison, Andrei died. In 1494, the last brother of Ivan III, Boris, died. He left his Volotsk inheritance to his sons Fyodor and Ivan. According to the will drawn up by the latter, most of the paternal inheritance due to him in 1503 passed to the Grand Duke. After the death of Ivan III, the appanage system was never revived in its former meaning. And although he endowed his younger sons Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon and Andrey with lands, they no longer had real power in them. The destruction of the old appanage-princely system required the creation of a new order of governing the country.
At the end of the 15th century. In Moscow, central government bodies began to form - “orders”, which were the direct predecessors of Peter the Great’s “colleges” and ministries of the 19th century. In the province main role Governors appointed by the Grand Duke himself began to play. The army also underwent changes. The princely squads were replaced by regiments consisting of landowners. Landowners received populated lands from the state for the duration of their service, which brought them income. These lands were called “estates.” Misdemeanor or early termination of service meant loss of estate. Thanks to this, the landowners were interested in honest and long service to the Moscow sovereign. In 1497, the Code of Laws was published - the first national code of laws since the times of Kievan Rus. The Sudebnik introduced uniform legal norms for the entire country, which was an important step towards strengthening the unity of the Russian lands. In 1490, at the age of 32, the son and co-ruler of the Grand Duke, the talented commander Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy, died. His death led to a long dynastic crisis that overshadowed last years life of Ivan III. After Ivan Ivanovich, there was a young son, Dmitry, who represented the senior line of descendants of the Grand Duke. Another contender for the throne was the son of Ivan III from his second marriage, the future sovereign of all Rus' Vasily III (1505-1533). Behind both contenders were dexterous and influential women - the widow of Ivan the Young, Wallachian princess Elena Stefanovna, and the second wife of Ivan III, the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologue. The choice between son and grandson turned out to be extremely difficult for Ivan III, and he changed his decision several times, trying to find an option that would not lead to a new series of civil strife after his death.
At first, the “party” of supporters of Dmitry the grandson gained the upper hand, and in 1498 he was crowned according to a previously unknown rite of grand-ducal wedding, which was somewhat reminiscent of the rite of crowning the kingdom of the Byzantine emperors. Young Dmitry was proclaimed co-ruler of his grandfather. Royal “barmas” (wide mantles with precious stones) were placed on his shoulders, and a golden “hat” was placed on his head. However, the triumph of the “Grand Duke of All Rus' Dmitry Ivanovich” did not last long. The very next year he and his mother Elena fell into disgrace. And three years later the heavy doors of the dungeon closed behind them. Prince Vasily became the new heir to the throne. Ivan III, like many other great politicians of the Middle Ages, had to once again sacrifice both his family feelings and the fates of his loved ones to the needs of the state. Meanwhile, old age was quietly creeping up on the Grand Duke. He managed to complete the work bequeathed by his father, grandfather, great-grandfather and their predecessors, a task in the sanctity of which Ivan Kalita believed - the “gathering” of Rus'.
In the summer of 1503, the Grand Duke suffered a stroke. It's time to think about the soul. Ivan III, who often treated the clergy harshly, was nevertheless deeply pious. The sick sovereign went on pilgrimage to monasteries. Having visited Trinity, Rostov, Yaroslavl, the Grand Duke returned to Moscow. In 1505, Ivan III, “by the grace of God, the sovereign of all Rus' and the Grand Duke of Volodymyr, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsk, and Vyatka, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and others” died. The personality of Ivan the Great was controversial, as was the time in which he lived. He no longer had the ardor and prowess of the first Moscow princes, but behind his calculating pragmatism one could clearly discern the high goal of life. He could be menacing and often inspired terror in those around him, but he never showed thoughtless cruelty and, as one of his contemporary testified, he was “kind to people” and was not angry at a wise word spoken to him in reproach. Wise and prudent, Ivan III knew how to set clear goals for himself and achieve them.
The first sovereign of all Rus'.
In the history of the Russian state, the center of which was Moscow, the second half of the 15th century was a time of youth - the territory rapidly expanded, military victories followed one after another, relations were established with distant countries. The old, dilapidated Kremlin with small cathedrals already seemed cramped, and in place of the dismantled ancient fortifications, powerful walls and towers built of red brick grew. Spacious cathedrals rose within the walls. The new princely towers shone with the whiteness of stone. The Grand Duke himself, who took the proud title of “Sovereign of All Rus',” dressed himself in gold-woven robes, and solemnly placed on his heir richly embroidered mantles - “barms” - and a precious “hat” similar to a crown. But in order for everyone - whether Russian or foreigner, peasant or sovereign of a neighboring country - to realize the increased importance of the Moscow state, external splendor alone was not enough. It was necessary to find new concepts - ideas that would reflect the antiquity of the Russian land, and its independence, and the strength of its sovereigns, and the truth of its faith. Russian diplomats and chroniclers, princes and monks took up this search. Collected together, their ideas constituted what in the language of science is called ideology. The beginning of the formation of the ideology of a unified Moscow state dates back to the period of the reign of Grand Duke Ivan III (1462-1505) and his son Vasily (1505-1533). It was at this time that two main ideas were formulated that remained unchanged for several centuries - the ideas of God's chosenness and independence of the Moscow state.
Now everyone had to learn that a new and strong state had emerged in eastern Europe - Russia. Ivan III and his entourage put forward a new foreign policy task - to annex the western and southwestern Russian lands that were under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In politics, not everything is decided by military force alone. The rapid rise in power of the Grand Duke of Moscow led him to the idea of the need to look for worthy justification for his actions. It was necessary to explain to the freedom-loving Novgorodians and proud residents of Tver why it was the Moscow prince, and not the Tver or Ryazan Grand Duke, who was the legitimate “sovereign of all Rus'” - the only ruler of all Russian lands. It was necessary to prove to foreign monarchs that their Russian brother was in no way inferior to them - neither in nobility nor in power. It was necessary, finally, to force Lithuania to admit that it owns the ancient Russian lands “not in truth,” illegally. The golden key that the creators of the ideology of a united Russian state picked up to several political “locks” at once was the doctrine of the ancient origin of the power of the Grand Duke. They had thought about this before, but it was under Ivan III that Moscow loudly declared from the pages of chronicles and through the mouths of ambassadors that the Grand Duke received his power from God himself and from his Kiev ancestors, who ruled in the 10th-11th centuries. throughout the Russian land.
Just as the metropolitans who headed the Russian church lived first in Kiev, then in Vladimir, and later in Moscow, so the Kiev, Vladimir and, finally, Moscow great princes were placed by God himself at the head of all Russian lands as hereditary and sovereign Christian sovereigns . This is precisely what Ivan III referred to when addressing the rebellious Novgorodians in 1472: “This is my patrimony, the people of Novgorod, from the beginning: from our grandfathers, from our great-grandfathers, from the Grand Duke Vladimir, who baptized the Russian land, from the great-grandson of Rurik, the first Grand Duke in your land. And from that Rurik until today you knew the only family of those great princes, first of Kyiv, and up to the great prince Dmitry-Vsevolod Yuryevich Vladimirsky (Vsevolod Big Nest, Prince of Vladimir in 1176-1212), and from that Grand Duke to me... we own you...” Thirty years later, during peace negotiations with the Lithuanians after the successful war for Russia of 1500-1503, The ambassadorial clerks of Ivan III emphasized: “The Russian land is from our ancestors, from antiquity, our fatherland... we want to stand for our fatherland, as God will help us: God is our helper and our truth!” It was not by chance that the clerks remembered the “old times”. In those days this concept was very important.
That is why it was very important for the Grand Duke to declare the antiquity of his family, to show that he was not an upstart, but the ruler of the Russian land according to “old times” and “truth.” No less important was the idea that the source of grand-ducal power was the will of the Lord himself. This elevated the Grand Duke even more above his subjects, who, as one foreign diplomat who visited at the beginning of the 16th century wrote. in Moscow, they gradually began to believe that “the will of the sovereign is the will of God.” The proclaimed “closeness” to God imposed a number of responsibilities on the monarch. He had to be pious, merciful, take care of the preservation of the true Orthodox faith by his people, carry out fair justice and, finally, “harrow” (defend) his land from enemies. Of course, in life, great princes and kings did not always correspond to this ideal. But this is exactly how the Russian people wanted to see them. New ideas about the origin of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow and the antiquity of his dynasty allowed him to confidently declare himself among European and Asian rulers. Russian ambassadors made it clear to foreign rulers that the “sovereign of all Rus'” was an independent and great ruler. Even in relations with the Holy Roman Emperor, who was recognized in Europe as the first monarch, Ivan III did not want to give up his rights, considering himself equal to him in position.
Following the example of the same emperor, he ordered to carve on his seal a symbol of power - a double-headed eagle crowned with crowns. A new grand ducal title was drawn up according to European models: “John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Rus' and grand prince of Volodymyr, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Ugra, and Vyatka, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and others.” . Lavish ceremonies began to be introduced at court. Ivan III crowned his grandson Dmitry, who later fell out of favor, into a great reign according to a new solemn rite, reminiscent of the wedding rites of the Byzantine emperors. His second wife, the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologus, could have told Ivan about them... So in the second half of the 15th century. in Moscow, a new image of the Grand Duke was created - a strong and sovereign “sovereign of all Rus'”, equal in dignity to the emperors. Probably, in the last years of the life of Ivan III or shortly after his death, an essay was written in court circles designed to further glorify the family of Moscow princes and to cast on it a reflection of the greatness of the ancient Roman and Byzantine emperors.
This work was called “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” The author of the “Tale” tried to prove that the family of Russian princes is connected with the king of the “weight of the universe” himself, Augustus, the emperor who ruled in Rome from 27 BC. to 14 AD This emperor, it was said in the “Tale,” had a certain “relative” named Prus, whom he sent as ruler “to the banks of the Vistula River in the cities of Malbork, and Torun, and Chwoini, and the glorious Gdansk, and many others.” cities along a river called the Neman and flowing into the sea. And Prus lived for many years, until the fourth generation; and from then until the present time this place is called Prussian land.” And Prus, it was said further, had a descendant whose name was Rurik. It was this Rurik that the Novgorodians invited to reign. All Russian princes descended from Rurik - the Grand Duke Vladimir, who baptized Rus', and his great-grandson Vladimir Monomakh, and all those who followed - right up to the Grand Dukes of Moscow. Almost all European monarchs of that time sought to connect their ancestry with the ancient Roman emperors. The Grand Duke, as we see, was no exception. However, the “Tale” does not end there. Further it tells how in the 12th century. the ancient royal rights of the Russian princes were especially confirmed by the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, who sent signs to the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir (1113-1125) imperial power- a cross, a precious “crown” (crown), a carnelian cup of Emperor Augustus and other items. “And from then on,” says the “Legend,” “Grand Duke Vladimir Vsevolodych began to be called Monomakh, the Tsar of Great Rus'... From then until now, the royal crown that sent Greek king Konstantin Monomakh, the great princes of Vladimir are married when they are appointed to the great reign of Russia.”
Historians have great doubts about the reliability of this legend. But contemporaries reacted to “The Tale” differently. His ideas penetrated the Moscow chronicles of the 16th century and became an important part of the official ideology. It was the “Tale” that Ivan IV (1533-1584) referred to when seeking recognition of his royal title. The center where the new ideology was created was Moscow. However, it was not only in the Kremlin that people thought about the new significance of the Moscow state. During long sleepless nights, in the trembling light of a torch, the monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery, Philotheus, thought about the fate of Russia, about its present and future. He expressed his thoughts in messages to Grand Duke Vasily III and his clerk Misyur Munekhin. Filofei was sure that Russia was called upon to play a special role in history. She - last country, where the true Orthodox faith has been preserved in its original, unspoiled form. At first, Rome preserved the purity of the faith, but gradually apostates muddied the pure source. Rome was replaced by Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, the “second Rome.” But even there they retreated from the true faith, agreeing to a union (union) with Catholic Church. This happened in 1439. And in 1453, as punishment for this sin ancient city was delivered into the hands of the Hagarians (Turks). Since then Moscow has become the “third” and last “Rome”, the center of world Orthodoxy. “So know,” Philotheus wrote to Munekhin, “that all Christian kingdoms have come to an end and converged in a single kingdom... and this is the Russian kingdom: for two Romes have fallen, and the third stands, and there will not be a fourth!” From this, Philotheus concluded that the Russian sovereign “is the king of Christians in all the heavens” and is “the preserver... of the holy universal apostolic church, which arose instead of the Roman and Constantinople and exists in the God-saved city of Moscow.” However, Philotheus did not at all propose to the Grand Duke to bring all Christian lands under his rule by force of the sword. In order for Russia to become worthy of this high destiny, he called on the Grand Duke to “organize his kingdom well” - to eradicate injustice, unmercifulness and resentment from it. Philofey's ideas together formed the so-called theory "Moscow is the third Rome." And although this theory was not included in the official ideology, it reinforced one of its most important provisions - that Russia was chosen by God, becoming a milestone in the development of Russian social thought. The ideology of a unified Moscow state, the foundation of which was laid in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries, continued to develop in the 16th-17th centuries, acquiring more complete and at the same time fixed, ossified forms. The majestic cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin and the proud double-headed eagle in the early 90s remind us of the first decades of its creation. XX century, which again became the state emblem of Russia.
Ivan III Vasilievich. Engraving from “Cosmography” by A. Teve, 1575
Ivan III (1440 - 1505) - one of the outstanding figures Russian history. Five centuries separate us.
A brief description of the “ruler of Great White Rus'” was left by the Venetian Ambrogio Contarini, who was in Moscow in 1476: “The Emperor is 35 years old, ... he is tall, but thin; In general, he is a very beautiful person." The Italian recorded that the sovereign showed the greatest courtesy, courtesy and even consideration towards him.
Contemporaries called him Terrible, Justice, Sovereign. His descendants called him the Great.
What was he like who had to take on the difficult challenges of the time? He did not leave us a single document written in his own hand: no letters, no diaries, no notes, no memoirs. In those days, rulers did not write with their own hands. The Chronicles that remain are Nikonovskaya, Lvovskaya, Arkhangelskaya, Sofia II. Acts, Agreements, Charters, Orders of Discharge, diplomatic documents, and certificates of foreigners have been preserved. They made it possible to study the era and allowed us to come to an understanding of the problems of the 15th century. By reading them, you can understand how Prince Ivan achieved his goals. Actions, decisions, deeds, accomplishments allow descendants to imagine a figure historical figure more voluminous.
N.M. left his thoughts about the “Sovereign of All Rus'”. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov. And also M.I. Pokrovsky, A.A. Zimin, V.B. Kobrin, R.G. Skrynnikov.
And now historians are appearing who read already known material in a new way, find new documents, evidence, artifacts and add new colors to the existing historical image.
The reign of Ivan III began in 1462. However, by this time he was no longer a novice in politics, since he had been involved in government through his blind father from the age of ten.
According to the will of Vasily the Dark, Ivan III received 16 cities, part of Moscow, which he initially ruled together with his brothers. They also received fiefdoms. The last will of Vasily II was politically vulnerable. The threat of civil war once again loomed over the country. Ivan Vasilyevich’s great merit was that he managed to avoid this misfortune and prevent large-scale strife between the Rurikovichs. That is why he limited their rights to dispose of their inheritances. The four brothers were sure that they should jointly rule the entire Russian land. They lived by the norms of the “old times”. And the world was changing. The eldest, Ivan III, did not think so. He continued the course of his predecessors towards centralization. The appanages became an obstacle to the creation of a unified state. Everyone, without exception, had to recognize themselves as subjects. Modern scientists are sure that compromises would lead to inhibition on the path of unification. Ivan Vasilyevich acted harshly. But the brothers also fought desperately for the “old times.” “The appanage prince was a seditionist, if not by nature, then by position: every intrigue clung to him...” The most restless relative, Prince Andrei Vasilyevich the Bolshoi, was declared a traitor for disobeying the Grand Duke in 1491 and not sending his commanders on a military campaign against the Horde. Andrei Goryai was imprisoned, where he soon died. Such isolation of the enemy is a completely ordinary (and not the most cruel) method of medieval warfare.
From the heights of past centuries, it is clear that the brothers of the Grand Duke lost to him in the confrontation between the “old” and the “new”. But it is also clear that the road to this new one was difficult and bloody. Similar stories can be found in the history of any ruling house.
At the same time, the Moscow Grand Duke was not a pathological torturer. His cruelty had certain political goals. Ivan Vasilyevich, first of all, sought to unite the Russian lands. The “gathering” of Rus' met the interests of broad sections of society. Family ties did not become an obstacle on this path. The sovereign acted in various ways. However, historians believe that the issue has not been fully studied; the mechanism of inheritance of Moscow power is still waiting for its thoughtful researcher.
The lands of North-Eastern Rus' were absorbed almost bloodlessly. Back in 1471, the Yaroslavl principality was finally annexed, and in 1474, the Rostov principality. In 1472, the annexation of Perm the Great began. In 1485, Tver passed to Moscow. In 1489 - Vyatka land. Relations with the Pskov land took place in line with the gradual restriction of its statehood.
It was an objective process, the essential points were thoroughly analyzed in the scientific literature. The Grand Duchy and the Appanage Principality had the same governance structure. A.Yu. Dvornichenko came to the conclusion that not only the territory was united, the power was also united, since the specific power was similar to the central one. In relation to Novgorod, the policy turned out to be different.
Unification of Russian lands under Ivan III
The rivalry between Novgorod and Moscow intensified under Dmitry Donskoy. In defiance of the Moscow title "Grand Duke", the Novgorodians began to call their city Veliky Novgorod.
The confrontation between Novgorod and Moscow intensified from decade to decade. Already in the middle of the 15th century, it was clear that the end of republican independence was a matter of the near future. Having learned about the desire of the Novgorodians to come under the rule of Catholic Lithuania, Ivan III, under the slogan of defending Orthodoxy, made two military campaigns against the Novgorodians (1471; 1477) and one peaceful one (1475). The boyar power had no defenders, and “Novgorod fell into the hands of the Moscow prince, who asserted full power over the Novgorodians in January 1478.”
The Grand Duke called on the Novgorodians not to deviate from the “old times,” recalled Rurik and Vladimir the Saint. “Old time” in the eyes of Ivan Vasilyevich is the primordial unity of the Russian land under the rule of the Grand Duke. This is a fundamentally important point, it should be especially noted, since for the first time a historical substantiation of a new political doctrine was undertaken. Ivan III sought to exclude the appanage tradition, on which Novgorod separatism actually relied. In January 1478, having heard from the vanquished that they did not know the peculiarities of Moscow rule, the Grand Duke gave an explanation: “our state of great people is like this: there will be no bell in our fatherland in Novgorod, there will be no mayor, but we will keep our dominion.” Yanin spoke very definitely about those events: “There is no need to talk about any manifestations of democracy in the 15th century, and when the decisive moment of the final clash between Moscow and Novgorod comes, it turns out that the ordinary population of the Novgorod land has nothing to defend in the order that had developed by that time... There was no clash between despotism and democracy. There was a clash of homogeneous forces of feudalism, in which the Novgorod boyar power did not receive support from the population." All experts are unanimous in their opinion: Russia gained its power by uniting Moscow and Novgorod. The political influence of Rus' extended all the way to the Northern Urals. The Novgorod “contribution” to the fund for the creation of a unified Russian state turned out to be decisive.
Export of the Novgorod veche bell to Moscow in 1478. Miniature from the Front Vault.
The Grand Duke did not seek to completely destroy the losers. Modern historians believe that the end of the boyar republic on the Volkhov was not equivalent to the collapse of Novgorod. The city became the most important element in the system of the Moscow state. The oath of Novgorod residents to the Russian state and the removal of the veche bell to Moscow did not eliminate Novgorod independence, liberties and economic activity. This was led to by the Livonian War (1558 - 1583), as a result of which they lost access to the Baltic Sea.
Ivan the Great is a key figure in our history. He can rightfully be called the creator of the Russian state. The symbol of this new country became the Moscow Kremlin. Behind the white stone Kremlin walls, which remembered Dmitry Donskoy, there were grand-ducal and metropolitan palaces, houses of the nobility, government offices, monasteries, monastic courtyards, and church churches. The oldest of them is the Assumption Cathedral. Like everything else in the Kremlin, it was dilapidated and required restructuring. Metropolitan Philip thought about renovating the temple back in 1471. According to tradition, tenders were announced for the construction of the cathedral.
The lowest price was announced by Moscow masters - Myshkin and Krivtsov. A lot of money was allocated from the metropolitan's treasury for the construction of the temple. In 1472, work began to boil. But in May 1474, the already erected walls collapsed. The chronicle names the cause as an earthquake. Pskov craftsmen invited for consultation explained that “lime is not glue-free” and could not hold the building together. Obviously, the failure of construction was associated with the loss of large-scale construction skills by Russian craftsmen. Muscovites saw in what happened a sign from above. And Metropolitan Philip stopped his efforts. Ivan III looked at the dilapidated cathedral for a year. Of course, he understood how important new architecture for his capital. Modern buildings would clearly demonstrate Russia’s sovereignty to its neighbors. The Grand Duke made a decision: to restore the temple using advanced construction techniques and technologies. This was the point of inviting Italian specialists to Russia. It was under Ivan Vasilyevich that foreigners began to be called to serve in the Muscovite kingdom. The first of them appeared in Moscow after the marriage of Ivan III to Sophia Paleologus. They arrived in the retinue of the Byzantine bride and became courtiers of Ivan Vasilyevich Foma and Dmitry Ivanovich Rale (Larevs in the Russian tradition), Nikula and Emmanuil Ivanovich Angelov, the Trakhaniotov family. In addition to the Greeks, Italians appeared in the service, “fryazis,” as they were called at that time, separating them from other “Germans.” Aristotle Fiorovanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Fryazin, Aleviz Fryazin the Old, Pietro Antonio Solari created and built what can rightfully be considered a synthesis of European and Russian culture. The famous Aristotle Fiorovanti was officially invited, offering a very significant sum for his services. An experienced engineer and builder from Bologna, he needed orders. They were also very interested in him. Having simultaneously received an offer from the Turkish Sultan and from the Moscow sovereign, he chose the second. In 1475, an Italian came to Moscow. In the Orthodox capital he was greeted kindly. They commissioned the creation of the main Russian shrine, the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Researchers are confident that while studying Russian architecture, Aristotle made two trips - one to Vladimir, the second to the north, to Novgorod and Pskov. And only after that he got down to business. He used engineering practices unfamiliar to Russians, brickwork, and used compasses and rulers.
Assumption Cathedral
In August 1479, the Assumption Cathedral was solemnly consecrated. For the inhabitants of the Moscow kingdom, the construction of the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God had a special meaning. After all, the Mother of God promised to take care of all Christians after death. According to biblical legend, the Jewish high priest Athos, who tried to interfere with the funeral procession and the farewell of the Mother of God, was severely punished by an unknown force. He lost both arms. Therefore, the Orthodox Russian people praying in the Assumption Cathedral believed that this sanctuary was the key to their success in victories over all the enemies of the Russian land, that the Mother of God would help the only remaining Orthodox country to defend its faith. The new Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin was a kind of appeal from the Grand Duke to his subjects. Ivan Vasilyevich, thus, called for resistance to the Horde. The old thinking whispered: you cannot resist the khan. The new thing, the bearer of which was the Moscow ruler, declared: we must fight the khans, we must not give up, we must win! Thus, combining the art of the Renaissance and the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, Aristotle Fiorovanti realized the dream of the Russian ruler about the main temple of the country. The Resurrection Chronicle accurately conveys the impression of contemporaries: “That church was wonderful in majesty and height and lightness and sonority and space; This has never happened before in Rus', except for the Vladimir Church...” The impact of the Italian Renaissance revolutionized Russian architecture, changed the identity of Moscow architecture and created new stylistic forms. At the same time, of course, the historical features of Russian architecture, coinciding in time with the Renaissance in Italy, turn out to be very unusual. In Muscovite Rus', the ideas of the Renaissance never freed themselves from the features of the Middle Ages. They were a combination of old and new. The majestic Moscow Assumption Cathedral surpassed Vladimir's. Now, until the very end of the 17th century, everywhere in Rus' he became a model, an ideal that should be imitated. The paintings of the cathedral were carried out in 1482-1515. Among the icon painters was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. It was in this temple that there was a Russian shrine revered by the people - the “Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God”.
The Assumption Cathedral became a symbolic image of the Muscovite kingdom and the Orthodox Church. He demonstrated Ivan III's aspirations for the unity of the country and the transformation of Moscow into the capital of the united Russian lands under the hand of the Moscow Grand Duke.
At this time, the strengthening of the power of the Sovereign Ruler and the development of an ideology that sought to give a new character to the Russian state continued.
The formation of the territory of a single state was basically completed by the 1480s. And all neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, the Livonian Order, Sweden, the Great Horde, the Kazan Khanate - took this extremely hostilely.
The Great Horde - a fragment of the Golden Horde - laid claim to all the latter's possessions. The ambitious Khan Akhmat, who occupied the throne, felt himself to be the heir of Genghis Khan. However, from the beginning of the 1470s, Ivan III did not send “exit” to the Horde; he did not go there himself, limiting himself to gifts. A.A. Gorsky notes:
Ivan III tears up the Khan's letter. Hood. HELL. Kivshenko.
“It seems that it was in the early to mid-70s that an “ideological understanding” of the need to gain independence from the Horde took place.” He comes to the conclusion that then a fundamentally new stage began in relations between Rus' and the Horde. And a serious group had formed in the ruler’s circle, advocating non-recognition of the khan’s suzerainty. Akhmat made his first attempt to punish Moscow in 1472. Then, for the first time, the Tatars retreated before the Russian regiments. Later, in 1476, the Khan's ambassador demanded in the form of an ultimatum to pay the debts. Ivan III refused. The denouement was approaching quickly.
In 1480, the Horde moved to Rus', stopped at a tributary of the Oka - Ugra, where the border between Lithuania and Russia lay. The famous “stand on the Ugra” began: the Horde tried to cross the river, but Russian guns did not allow them to do this.
Standing on the Ugra River. Hood. A. Serov.
The success of the Russian army was ensured by the use of field artillery, firearms, the correct disposition of troops, and their skillful maneuvering. The regiments of Ivan III were armed modern weapons, the Russian gunners fired accurately and accurately, destroyed and scattered the Horde, who did not dare to go on the offensive.
The campaign of 1480 is an example of a strategic defensive operation with a decisive result in a war on two fronts, in the most difficult foreign and domestic political conditions. The sovereign's headquarters was located in the immediate rear and had a real opportunity for effective operational command of the troops.
Under Ivan III, a whole galaxy of outstanding military figures appeared. Worthy of mention are the books. Semyon Fedorovich Vorotynsky, Prince. Boris Ivanovich Gorbaty (Suzdal), Prince. Semyon Ivanovich Ryapolovsky, Prince. Semyon Danilovich Kholmsky prince. Vasily Fedorovich, Shuisky, Dmitry Vasilyevich Shein, Prince. Danilo Vasilievich Shchenya.
It is worth recalling that Ivan III carried out a successful military reform, which led to the creation of a unified military system of the Russian state. The army received reliable combat armor, modern firearms, first of all, guns. Ivan Vasilyevich knew how to listen to his military specialists, understand the essence of their thoughts and proposals, and make (in most cases) the right decision. And he won. The acquisition of sovereignty is a key moment not only in the history of the reign of Ivan the Great, but also in the history of Russia as a whole.
The political successes of Ivan III required changes in the capital. The gains of independence made the Kremlin the center of state power. And the ruler thought about rebuilding his residence. The knowledge and talents of Aristotle Fiorovanti were again in demand, and he drew up a plan for the upcoming work. The start date for work is known. On July 19, 1485, the Italian architect Anton Fryazin laid the archery instead of the old white stone gate. This is how the Taynitskaya Tower appeared (at its base there was a secret passage to the river). Experienced Italian fortifiers erected a first-class fortress, the walls of which stretched for two kilometers, their height ranged from 19 to 8 m, and their width was 3-6 m. Along the perimeter there were 18 powerful towers with 3-5 tiers of loopholes. The corner towers were made round (with the exception of the multifaceted Dog Tower). Vodovoznaya hid a well that supplied the Kremlin with water, Troitskaya became a prison for especially important criminals, Nabatnaya gave danger signals to Muscovites with its bell, and gathered people to the square. Along the upper edge of the wall there was a wide battle platform, which was covered from the outside by thousands of battlements. The famous Milanese swallowtail miraculously fits into the Russian landscape. The travel towers were carefully strengthened with diversion archers, descending gers, and supplemented with drawbridges and bridgeheads. The fortress was practically impregnable. Art critics admire the integrity and completeness of the architectural ensemble and note its desire for geometricism.
Moscow Kremlin under Ivan III. Hood. A. Vasnetsov.
Thus, they believe, the genius of Fiorovanti established order in architecture, as opposed to the chaos of the Middle Ages. The plan of the genius of the European Renaissance found the full support of the Orthodox ruler. It is worth emphasizing that while solving the problem of the struggle for independence, Ivan Vasilyevich began to look closely at Europe. The Moscow prince discovered that when communicating with Europeans, Russians were sometimes significantly inferior, and decided to begin to overcome the gap. And he began the Europeanization of the country. Neither the Turkish sultans, nor the Chinese gods, nor the shahs and padishahs, nor the great Moguls, noticed the European “novelties”. And the Moscow ruler showed great interest in them. However, he was careful and acted gradually. He concentrated on weapons and technical skills (mainly gunsmithing and stone construction), as well as on the organization of the diplomatic service. He was not afraid of foreigners, but did not radically change Moscow life. He firmly preserved Russian customs and Orthodox faith. In 1491, the construction of the Faceted Chamber was completed. Started by Mark Fryazin and completed by Pietro Antonio Solari, it occupies a special place in the history of Russian civil architecture. Like the Assumption Cathedral, it kept in its appearance national traditions, which were not absorbed by the art of the Renaissance. Festive dinners were held in the Faceted Chamber, receptions of foreign guests were held, and later meetings Zemsky Sobors. In the spacious Holy Entrance they awaited the sovereign's audience. The red porch was intended for ceremonial entrances of the sovereign. Under Ivan III, Pskov craftsmen erected the Church of the Deposition of the Robe and the Annunciation Cathedral. They combined elements of Pskov and Moscow architecture. And all the temples built were in harmony, did not contradict each other, making up a single artistic whole.
It should be admitted that in everything Ivan Vasilyevich had a sense of proportion. The ruler was a man of outstanding intelligence and statesmanship. Ivan III died without seeing the completion of the construction of the Archangel Cathedral, which became the tomb of Moscow rulers. He was placed in the still unfinished temple. Life continued to boil around Derzhavny, which had already become history, and the construction and improvement of the Kremlin did not stop. Ivan Vasilyevich determined the main goals of these changes, he supervised the main work, and his plan acquired powerful outlines. But it was not completed. Just as his royal plan was not finally completed. But it was Ivan the Great who made the most important creative breakthrough in the construction of the Russian state.
Even during its formation, the united Russian state began to purposefully master the diverse experience of the modernizing West, which ensured its competitiveness and military-political superiority over its eastern neighbors.
Ivan III won in Time and Space. Russia under his successors became an Empire. It was the process of Europeanization that became the basis of Russia’s competitiveness. Great Sovereign Ivan III, to a certain extent, formed the prerequisites for the transformations of Peter I, created the foundations for the transformation of Russia into a great European power in the 18th century.
During his reign, reforms on a national scale began. Changes covered all areas: the political system, the socio-economic system, legislation. A system of government of a single state began to take shape. In the 1470s, Ivan Vasilyevich took the title “Sovereign of All Rus'”. Russia becomes a prominent state in the world of that time, establishes diplomatic relations, and interacts with both European and Asian states. Foreign policy priorities are taking shape, and the country's national and state interests are gradually taking shape. The international legal status of the Russian state is, first of all, the status of its monarch, which is based on the symbols of his power. There was a need to create a coat of arms, and it was created. The State Archive of Ancient Acts contains a document dating back to 1497. The Grand Duke's seal of Ivan III sealed the “exchange and allotment” charter for the land holdings of the appanage princes. It was made of red wax. At that time, the seal was hung, not applied, so it had two sides. The emblems of the seal are a horseman slaying a serpent with a spear (on the front side) and a double-headed eagle (on the back side).More N.M. Karamzin in “History of the Russian State” noted that the symbolism of the Russian coat of arms originates from the seal of 1497. This opinion is shared by the majority of the scientific community. We know that the rider is ancient image, symbolizing the prince. St. George the Victorious was also revered in Rus'; he was perceived as the heavenly patron of the army. Saint George was also popular in Europe, where he was revered as the patron saint of chivalry.
The Heavenly Warrior on a white horse, striking the Serpent with a spear, was present on the banners of the princely squads, helmets and shields of warriors, on coins and signet rings - the insignia of military leaders, on the grand ducal seals. During the time of Dmitry Donskoy, St. George became the patron saint of Moscow. The high relief icon of St. George was installed on the Frolovskaya (Spasskaya) tower of the Kremlin by order of Ivan Vasilyevich in 1464. The image was installed on the outside to protect the Kremlin from enemies. Later, Italian craftsmen built the Spasskaya Tower on this site, placed an image of the Savior above its gates, and moved the sculpture of St. George first to the St. George Church, then to the Ascension Monastery. St. George the Victorious was an example of Christian virtues. It is no coincidence that his image was on the grand ducal banners of Ivan III, with which he went to the Great Stand on the Ugra. Many researchers believe that the image of St. George on state seal and in the Moscow symbolism of the times of Ivan the Great it became a sign of the succession of the Moscow princes to the Vladimir and Kyiv princes. The role of the Moscow prince as a stronghold of Orthodoxy was also symbolically emphasized. Analysis of the semantics of the images shows that both emblems corresponded to certain parts of the title: the horseman was a subjective title, naming the sovereign himself, and the eagle was an objective or territorial title, describing the state. The eagle has long been perceived as a symbol of heavenly (solar) power, fire and immortality, as a symbol of the gods and their messenger. In the Middle Ages it was revered as a symbol of the resurrection of Christ. The double-headed eagle replaced the lion of Vasily II because it had a fundamentally new meaning. State symbols became necessary, since state ideology required reinforcement of its ideas, including visually. Two problems had to be solved. First, explain to your people the new system of power, the new political reality. Secondly, to show the whole world the sovereign dignity of the Moscow State. The most reasonable assumption is that the double-headed eagle on the state seal of Ivan III symbolizes, first of all, the claims of the Moscow authorities to the vast territories of the once united Old Russian state, which was thought of by the Grand Duke as his ancestral homeland. Historians believe that the two heads of the eagle can be interpreted as two parts of the Russian state: one was already under the rule of Moscow, the second still had to be returned to the Moscow Rurikovichs. From the point of view of the Grand Duke of Moscow, it was he who had ownership rights in relation to all the lands that once belonged to Kyiv. That is why, at the same time, at the end of the 15th century, images of a gilded double-headed eagle on a red field appeared on the walls of the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin. The Moscow ruler realized his aspirations: as a result of the wars with Lithuania, significant territories in the west went to Russia, in 1510, then under Vasily III, Pskov was annexed, and in 1514 Smolensk. Experts have still not come to a consensus and did not settle on an agreed version about the source of the appearance of the eagle in Russian state symbols. The eagle was borrowed. But from whom? The Holy Roman Empire? In the Balkan countries? Byzantium? In the Novgorod Republic? Each of the versions is solid. But not one is completely convincing. It is quite possible that all the options together contributed to the formation of Ivan III's decision. Something else is important: in those years when a single Russian state, the state emblem of the new country was created. It became the double-headed eagle - and this symbol is inextricably linked with Russia to this day, for several centuries now.
Seal of Ivan III (1497)
In 1498, the first royal wedding in Russian history took place. Ivan III crowned Dmitry the grandson with the Monomakh cap for the great reign. A system of the nobility's oath of allegiance to the ruler was introduced, and a letter of cross-kissing about princely and boyar "non-departure" appeared. A special form of land ownership arose - the manorial system, in which the landowner held the land only for the duration of his active service. An all-Russian monetary system was created.
In 1497, the first all-Russian Code of Law was created. It is traditionally believed that the Code of Laws was intended to regulate procedural, criminal and civil legal relations. However, the text analysis carried out by B.N. Zemtsov, showed that at the end of the 15th century. the most important thing for the authors, led by Ivan III, was the creation new system executive authorities. The difficult political situation in the country required a new regulation of the judicial functions of central and local authorities.
Under Ivan the Great, the formation of the Sovereign's Court took place, which carried out the functions of the state apparatus of power. Its upper house was the Boyar Duma. It acquires the features of representativeness from various layers of the aristocracy and becomes a “co-ruling” body under the sovereign who heads a single state. Modern discourse on the issue of the political forms of the Russian state is associated with the involvement of new sources in scientific circulation. Previously expressed ideas require clarification based on the latest data.
The overcoming of fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of the state contributed to the emergence of the idea “Moscow is the new Constantinople.” It was first voiced by Metropolitan Zosima at a church council in 1492. Later, the thoughts expressed would be developed in the writings of Elder Philotheus (c. 1465-1542), who would call Russia the “Third Rome.” But only after gaining the patriarchate in the 17th century will this formula be filled with political meanings. Then, at the end of the 15th century, there were still no imperial ambitions; we were talking about the need to establish a true Christian faith in the country.
Sophia Paleolog. Plastic reconstruction (1994)
It is worth mentioning the second marriage of Ivan Vasilyevich with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus in 1472 and “obtaining rights to Constantinople.” The Roman Popes, Paul II, Sixtus IV, Uniate Greeks, and Eastern Orthodox Christians interpreted the “Byzantine inheritance” as the opportunity and obligation of Muscovy to wage war for specific territories that were once Byzantine. And the sovereign of sovereign Russia sought to erect a new Orthodox Constantinople on the “seven hills of Moscow.” The Muscovites did not fight with the Ottomans. Domestic diplomacy made every effort to establish good relations with the Sublime Porte. For Ivan Vasilyevich, Russian national-state interests and awareness of the merits of the kingdom over which he ruled lay at the heart of foreign policy.
Moscow, as Russian lands gathered, established itself as the successor of Kievan Rus and became a symbol of political unification on a popular national basis. Ivan III turned into political leader, Sovereign of All Rus', called upon to unite all Orthodox Russian lands that were once part of the Old Russian state. Hence the new understanding of the state as a reflection of the interest of the emerging nation. As a ruler, Ivan III was a first-class master of his craft. Having begun the process of collecting Russian lands and absorbing them into the stronger Moscow principality, Ivan III began to change the previously existing political system. Born a tributary of the steppe Horde, he became the ruler of a country recognized in Rome and Istanbul, Stockholm and Vienna, Vilna and Krakow. He skillfully combined the tactics of war and peace, restored the freedom and integrity of Russia, and protected its borders from enemy encroachments. Of course, the Moscow state in the second half of the 15th century. was undergoing a process of formation. Its institutions were still amorphous, the boundaries of power of various bodies were not strictly delineated. Under these conditions, the imperious behavior of Ivan III, the ruler, played a very important role. The sovereign ruler of the Muscovite kingdom entered the history of the country as the creator of an independent state called Russia.
Shcherbakova Olga Mikhailovna,
Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of History of Moscow State University technical university them. N.E. Bauman
Zemtsov Boris Nikolaevich,
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor. Professor, Department of History, Moscow State Technical University. N.E. Bauman
Kudryavtsev O.F. An involuntary visit: Russia of Ivan III through the eyes of the Venetian ambassador Ambrogio Contarini // Middle Ages. 2014, No. 75. P. 157.
Right there. pp. 156-158.
Peizak A.V. Features of Russian domestic policy at the end of the 15th century. as a condition for the formation of a service state and the centralization of state power // Society and Law. 2011. No. 4 (36).P. 73.
8 Talina G.V. Moscow Rus' from an appanage principality to a kingdom: the evolution of statehood through the prism of the views of contemporaries // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. 2015, no. 2. pp. 145-146.
Klyuchevsky V.O. About Russian history. M., Education, 1993. P. 198.
Borisov N.S. Ivan III. Father of Russian autocracy. M., Academic project, 2016. pp. 568-569.
Mikhailova T.V., Mikhailov A.V. Argumentation of the right to supreme power in Russian political discourse of the 15th-17th centuries. /Vestnik KSPU im. V.P. Astafieva. T. 2. Humanitarian and natural Sciences, 2011. No. 3 (17). P. 89.
Kinyov S.L. Principles of inheritance of power in Rus' in the XIV–XVI centuries. in Russian historiography // Bulletin of Tomsk State University, 2011, No. 353. P. 91-92.
Chagin G.N. Perm the Great and the first centuries of its Christianization // PSTGU Bulletin: History. History of the Russian Orthodox Church. 2011. No. 5 (42). P.12-13.
Salmin S.A. Novgorod campaigns and the Moscow-Pskov conflict of 1489/99 in the light of the “Byzantine marriage” of Ivan III // Pskov Military Historical Bulletin. 2015. No. P.17.
Dvornichenko A.Yu. The time of Ivan III and the formation of Russian statehood // Proceedings of the Department of History of Russia from ancient times to the 20th century. T.1. Saint Petersburg. From SPGU, 2006. P.11-13.
Yanin V.L. Essays on the history of Medieval Novgorod. 2nd ed., M., Russkiy Mir, IPC “Life and Thought”. 2013. P.412.
Right there. P. 414.
Alekseev Yu.G. Sovereign of All Rus'. Novosibirsk, Nauka, 1991. P.138.
Reader on the history of Russia from ancient times to 1618. Kuzmin A.G., Pereverzentsev S.V., eds. M., Humanitarian. ed. VLADOS center. 2004. P. 530.
Yanin V.L. Decree. Op. P. 13.
Yanin V.L. The role of Novgorod in National history//Bulletin of Novgorod State University. 2006. No. 38. P.8.
Bessudnova M. B. Veliky Novgorod at the end of the 15th century. between Livonia and Moscow // Bulletin of St. Petersburg University. Ser. 2, 2013. No. 2. pp. 6-7.
Soloviev K.A. Decree. Op. 270-275, 285-287.
Nagibin Yu.M. A book about old Moscow. Alarming ringing. Moscow: RIPOL classic, 2015. 306 p. P.38-50.
Chernikova T.V. Europeanization of Russia in the second half of the 15th century – XVII centuries. M., MGIMO – University, 2012. pp. 108-109, 114-115, 117.
Shvidkovsky D. O. Ways of development of Russian architecture. Space and Time, 2013, No. 1(11), p. 103-116.
Mezentseva Yu.I. Ancient Architecture of the Kremlin. Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University. Series: History and Political Sciences, 2013. No. 2. p.27-31
Batalov A.L. Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin in the sacred topography of Moscow, pp. 64–75 / Moscow Kremlin of the 15th century: Collection of articles, Vol. 1: Ancient shrines and historical monuments. Moscow, Art-Volkhonka. , 2011.
Rubanik V.E. On the discussion about the reasons and prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state // Vector of Science of Togliatti State University, 2009. No. 5. P. 103.
Gorsky A.A. Moscow and Horde. M., Nauka, 2003. pp. 168-169.
Volkov V.A. Feats of arms of Ancient Rus'. M., Eksmo, 2011. pp. 81-82.
Alekseev Yu. G. Campaigns of Russian troops under Ivan III. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University, 2009, pp. 430-432.
Chernikova T.V. The process of Europeanization in Russia in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries. Author's abstract. Doctor of History M., 2014. pp. 6-7.
Chernikova T.V. The beginning of the Europeanization of Russia during the time of Ivan III // Bulletin of MGIMO-University, 2011, No. 5. P. 108-109, 114-115.
Soloviev K.A. Authoritative behavior in the Moscow state in the second half of the 15th century. //Public administration. Electronic Bulletin, 2013, No. 38, pp. 224-225. URL: http://e-journal.spa.msu.ru/vestnik/item/38_2013soloviov.htm (access date 12/28/2016).
Khoroshkevich A.L. Coat of arms, flag and anthem: From history state symbols Rus' and Russia Moscow. Time, 2008, 192 p.
Borzova E. P. The meaning of the symbol of Victory in the image of St. George the Victorious in the culture of Russia. Proceedings of the St. Petersburg State University of Culture and Art. Saint Petersburg. Publishing house of the St. Petersburg Institute of Culture, 2009. T.185. P.11-14.
Pchelov E.V. Changes state emblem Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. and their reasons. Ancient Rus': Issues of Medieval Studies. 2015. No. 3 (61) . P.101-102.
Zagoruiko M.V., Aliev O.G. “First we create the coat of arms, and then the coat of arms creates us (the predictive aspect of heraldry). State Advisor, 2014, No. 3(7). P.61-71.
Chernysheva M.I., Dubovitsky A.B. Royal (royal) and sun birds (peacock, phoenix, rooster and eagle). Space and Time, 2016, No. 3–4 (25–26). pp. 156-174.
Agoshton M. On the question of the origin of Russian state symbols: the double heads on the red wax seal of Ivan III in 1497. News of the Volgorad State Technical University, 2005, No. 5, p. 89-92
Alekseev Yu.G. Code of law of Ivan III: traditions and reforms. – St. Petersburg, Dmitry Bulavin, 2001. P. 130-134, 432.
Morunova E.A. Origin of the Code of Law of 1497 // Bulletin of the Volga University named after. V.N. Tatishcheva, 2009, No. 70. P. 128-129.
Zemtsov B. N. Code of Law of Ivan III: the goals of the legislator // Leningradsky legal journal, 2016, No. 1 (43). P.29-30].
Tsvetkova M.A. Ways of forming the Sovereign's Court // Bulletin of Volgograd State University. Series 4: history, regional studies, international relations, 2005, No. 10. pp. 173-174].
Shishkin I.G. Development ways political system Russia XV-XVII V historical research end of XX century //Bulletin of Tyumen State University. Socio-economic and legal studies, 2004, No. 1. P. 37-39].
Linkova E.V. On the issue of shaping the image of Russia in Western Europe//Bulletin Russian University Friendship between nations. Ser. General History, 2014, No. 1. P. 57-58].
Chernikova T.V. Russia and Europe in the 15th – early 16th centuries. Points of common ground and borrowing // Bulletin of MGIMO-University, 2010, No. 3. P.39-40, 45
Larionov A.N. The structure of Russian society during the period of centralization //TerraEconomicus, 2013. No. 1-2 (Vol. 11). C142-143].
Ivan III was born on January 22, 1440. He came from a family of Moscow grand dukes. His father was Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark, his mother was Princess Maria Yaroslavna, granddaughter of the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo V.A. Serpukhovsky. A few days after the birth of the boy, on January 27, the church remembered the “transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom.” In honor of this great saint, the baby was named John.
Wanting to legitimize the new order of succession to the throne and take away from hostile princes any pretext for unrest, Vasily II, during his lifetime, named Ivan Grand Duke. All letters were written on behalf of the two great princes.
In 1446, Ivan was engaged to Maria, the daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich Tverskoy, who was distinguished by his caution and foresight. The groom was about seven years old at the time of engagement. This future marriage was supposed to symbolize the reconciliation of eternal rivals - Moscow and Tver.
In the last ten years of Vasily II's life, Prince Ivan was constantly with his father and participated in all his affairs.
and hiking. By 1462, when Vasily died, 22-year-old Ivan was already a man who had seen a lot, with an established character, ready to solve difficult state issues.
However, for another five years after his accession to the throne, Ivan, as far as one can judge from scanty sources, did not set himself those major historical tasks for which his time would later be glorified.
In the second half of the 60s of the 15th century, Ivan III determined the priority task of his foreign policy to ensure the security of the eastern border by establishing political control over the Kazan Khanate. The war with Kazan of 1467-1469 ended generally successfully for Muscovites. She forced the Kazan Khan Ibrahim to stop raiding the possessions of Ivan III for a long time. At the same time, the war showed the limitations of the internal resources of the Moscow Principality. Decisive successes in the fight against the heirs of the Golden Horde could only be achieved at a qualitatively new level of unification of Russian lands. Realizing this, Ivan turns his attention to Novgorod. The vast possessions of Veliky Novgorod extended from the Baltic Sea to the Urals and from the White Sea to the Volga. The conquest of Novgorod is the main achievement of Ivan III in the matter of “gathering Rus'”.
Prince Ivan “was a statesman, an outstanding politician and diplomat,” writes his biographer N.S. Borisov. “He knew how to subordinate his emotions to the requirements of circumstances. This ability to “control oneself” is the source of many of his successes. Ivan III, unlike his father, always carefully calculated all the possible consequences of his actions. The Novgorod epic can serve as a clear example of this. The Grand Duke clearly understood that the difficulty lay not so much in conquering Novgorod as in doing it unnoticed. Otherwise, he could turn all of Eastern Europe against himself and lose not only Novgorod, but also much more..."
Best of the day
Back in December 1462, a large embassy “about the humility of the world” went to Moscow from Novgorod. It was headed by Archbishop Jonah. In Moscow, the Novgorod nobility was received with honor. However, during the negotiations, Ivan III showed firmness. The Novgorodians did not yield either. As a result, the hours-long debate ended mutual concessions. Peace has been achieved.
To conclude a more favorable agreement, both sides played a complex diplomatic game.
Ivan III sought to win Pskov over to his side. Envoy of Prince F.Yu. Shuisky contributed to the conclusion of a 9-year truce between Pskov and the German order on conditions favorable to the Russians.
The Moscow-Pskov rapprochement greatly worried the Novgorodians and swung the scales in favor of peaceful relations with Moscow. The alliance with Pskov became a strong means of putting pressure on Novgorod. In the winter of 1464, a truce was concluded between Moscow and Novgorod, which turned out to be quite long.
In the summer of 1470, it became clear that Ivan III, having mastered Kazan, was turning his military-political power to the northwest, towards Novgorod.
The Novgorodians sent an embassy to the Lithuanian king Casimir IV. Instead of troops, he sent Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich (Olelkovich). This prince professed Orthodoxy and was a cousin of Ivan III. All this made him the most suitable candidate for the Novgorod table. However, Mikhail's stay on Volkhov was short-lived. Considering himself offended by something, he soon left Novgorod.
On November 18, 1470, after the death of Jonah, Theophilus became the new ruler of Novgorod. The named Bishop Theophilus was going, according to the old tradition, to go, accompanied by the boyars, to Moscow for a decree to Metropolitan Philip. Ivan III agreed to the usual procedure for approving a new archbishop. In the message, the Moscow prince called Novgorod his “fatherland,” that is, an inalienable, inherited possession. This caused indignation among the Novgorodians, and especially among the “Lithuanian party”.
In the spring of 1471, Novgorod ambassadors went to Lithuania, where an agreement was concluded with King Casimir IV, according to which Novgorod came under his supreme authority, and Casimir undertook to protect it from attacks by the Grand Duke.
In fact, the Polish-Lithuanian king did not intend to fight for Novgorod, which greatly facilitated Moscow expansion. The attempts of Casimir IV at critical moments to set some steppe khan against Ivan III did not bring the expected results.
In May 1471, Ivan III sent “letters of marking” to Novgorod - a formal notification of the start of the war.
On July 13, on the banks of the Sheloni River, the Novgorodians were completely defeated. Ivan III moved with the main army to Novgorod. Meanwhile, there was no help from Lithuania. The people in Novgorod became agitated and sent their archbishop Theophilus to ask the Grand Duke for mercy.
It seems that one effort was enough to defeat Novgorod and end the war with an unprecedented triumph. However, Ivan III resisted the temptation. On August 11, 1471, near Korostyn, he concluded an agreement that summed up the entire Moscow-Novgorod war. As if condescending to strengthened intercession for the guilty metropolitan, his brothers and boyars, the Grand Duke declared his mercy to the Novgorodians: “I give up my dislike, I put down the sword and the thunderstorm in the land of Novgorod and release it full without compensation.”
The conditions put forward by the victors turned out to be unexpectedly lenient. The Novgorodians swore allegiance to Ivan III and pledged to pay him an indemnity for a year. The internal structure of Novgorod remained the same. Volok Lamsky and Vologda finally passed to Moscow.
And, most importantly, according to the Korostyn Treaty, Novgorod recognized itself as the “fatherland” of the Grand Duke of Moscow, and Ivan III himself as the highest court for the townspeople.
Soon Ivan solved his personal problems. The sudden death of Ivan III's first wife, Princess Maria Borisovna, on April 22, 1467, forced the 27-year-old Grand Duke of Moscow to think about a new marriage.
Moscow's joining the pan-European alliance to fight Turkey has become a dream of Western diplomacy. Turkey's penetration of the Mediterranean coast primarily threatened Italy. Therefore, already from the 70s of the 15th century, both the Republic of Venice and the papal throne looked with hope to the distant North-East. This explains the sympathy with which the project of marriage of the powerful Russian sovereign with the heir to the Byzantine throne, Sophia (Zoe) Fominichna Paleologus, who was under the patronage of the pope, was met both in Rome and in Venice. Through Greek and Italian businessmen, this project was carried out on November 12, 1472. The sending to Moscow simultaneously with the bride and the plenipotentiary “legate” (ambassador) of Pope Sixtus IV, Bonumbre, equipped with the broadest powers, indicated that papal diplomacy associated great plans with this marriage union. The Venetian Council, for its part, inspired Ivan III with the idea of his rights to the legacy of the Byzantine emperors, seized by the “common enemy of all Christians,” that is, the Sultan, because the “hereditary rights” to the Eastern Empire naturally passed to the Moscow prince by virtue of his marriage.
However, all these diplomatic steps did not yield any results. The Russian state had its own urgent international tasks. Ivan III steadily implemented them, not allowing himself to be seduced by any tricks of Rome or Venice.
The marriage of the Moscow sovereign with the Greek princess was an important event in Russian history. He opened the way for connections between Muscovite Rus' and the West. On the other hand, together with Sophia, some orders and customs of the Byzantine court were established at the Moscow court. The ceremony became more majestic and solemn. The Grand Duke himself rose to prominence in the eyes of his contemporaries. They noticed that Ivan, after marrying the niece of the Byzantine emperor, appeared as an autocratic sovereign on the Moscow grand-ducal table; He was the first to receive the nickname Terrible, because he was a monarch for the princes of the squad, demanding unquestioning obedience and severely punishing disobedience.
It was at that time that Ivan III began to inspire fear with his very appearance. Women, contemporaries say, fainted from his angry gaze. The courtiers, fearing for their lives, had to amuse him during his leisure hours, and when he, sitting in his armchairs, indulged in a doze, they stood motionless around him, not daring to cough or make a careless movement, so as not to wake him. Contemporaries and immediate descendants attributed this change to Sophia's suggestions. Herberstein, who was in Moscow during the reign of Sophia’s son, said about her: “She was an unusually cunning woman, at her suggestion the Grand Duke did a lot.”
The very fact that the bride agreed to go from Rome to distant and unknown Moscow indicates that she was a brave, energetic and adventurous woman. In Moscow, she was expected not only by the honors given to the Grand Duchess, but also by the hostility of the local clergy and the heir to the throne. At every step she had to defend her rights. She probably did a lot to find support and sympathy in Moscow society. But the best way to establish oneself was, of course, childbearing. Both as a monarch and as a father, the Grand Duke wanted to have sons. Sophia herself wanted this. However, to the delight of his ill-wishers, frequent births brought Ivan three daughters in a row - Elena (1474), Theodosius (1475) and again Elena (1476). Alarmed Sophia prayed to God and all the saints for the gift of a son.
Finally her request was fulfilled. On the night of March 25-26, 1479, a boy was born, named Vasily in honor of his grandfather. (For his mother, he always remained Gabriel - in honor of the Archangel Gabriel, whose memory was celebrated on March 26.) Happy parents connected the birth of their son with last year's pilgrimage and fervent prayer at the tomb of St. Sergius of Radonezh in the Trinity Monastery.
Following Vasily, she gave birth to two more sons (Yuri and Dmitry), then two daughters (Elena and Feodosia), then three more sons (Semyon, Andrei and Boris) and the last, in 1492, daughter Evdokia.
But let's get back to political activity Ivan III. In 1474, he bought from the Rostov princes the remaining half of the Rostov principality. But the more important event was the final conquest of Novgorod.
In 1477, the “Moscow party” in Novgorod, impressed by the mass exodus of townspeople to the Grand Duke, decided to take their own steps in the same direction. Two representatives of the Novgorod veche arrived in Moscow - the subvoy Nazar and the clerk Zakhar. In their petition they called Ivan and his son sovereigns, whereas before all the Novgorodians called them masters. The title “sovereign” essentially concealed recognition of Ivan’s right to dispose of Novgorod at his own discretion.
On April 24, the Grand Duke sent his ambassadors to ask what kind of state Veliky Novgorod wanted. The Novgorodians answered at the meeting that they did not call the Grand Duke sovereign and did not send ambassadors to him to talk about some new state; all of Novgorod, on the contrary, wants everything to remain without change, the old fashioned way.
The ambassadors returned empty-handed. And in Novgorod itself a rebellion broke out. Supporters of the “Lithuanian party” rushed to destroy the houses of the boyars who advocated submission to Moscow. Those who were considered the culprits of Ivan III’s invitation to the “state” especially suffered.
On September 30, 1477, Ivan III sent a “folding letter” to Novgorod - a notice of the formal break and the beginning of the war. On October 9, the sovereign left Moscow and headed to Novgorod - “for their crime, execute them by war.”
On November 27, Ivan came close to Novgorod. However, the sovereign was in no hurry to storm the city.
On December 5, Bishop Theophilus, accompanied by several boyars, came to negotiate with him. Ivan received the guests in the presence of his brothers Andrei Bolshoi, Boris and Andrei Menshoy. This time Ivan III spoke out directly: “We, the Grand Dukes, want our own state, just as we are in Moscow, so we want to be in our homeland, Veliky Novgorod.”
Negotiations continued in the following days. Ruthlessly dictating his terms to the Novgorodians, Ivan III considered it necessary to yield to them in some important points. The Grand Duke guaranteed the Novgorod boyars the preservation of those estates that they owned, as well as exemption from service in the Moscow army outside the Novgorod land.
On January 4, 1478, when the townspeople began to suffer severely from hunger, Ivan demanded that half of the lordly and monastic volosts and all the Novotorzh volosts, no matter whose they were, be given to him. Ivan III's calculations were accurate and impeccable. Without affecting the interests of private owners, in this situation he received half of the huge estates of the Novgorod see and monasteries.
Two days later, Novgorod accepted these conditions. On January 15, all townspeople were sworn in to complete obedience to the Grand Duke. The veche bell was removed and sent to Moscow. Ivan insisted that the residence of his “right bank” governors be located in the Yaroslavl courtyard, where the citywide assembly usually met. In ancient times, this is where the courtyard of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise was located.
In March 1478, Ivan III returned to Moscow, successfully completing the matter. Novgorod concerns did not leave the sovereign in subsequent years. But all opposition protests were suppressed in the most brutal manner.
In 1480, Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat marched on Moscow. In fact, Rus' had been independent from the Horde for many years, but formally the supreme power belonged to the Horde khans. Rus' grew stronger - the Horde weakened, but continued to remain a formidable force. In response, Ivan sent regiments to the Oka, and he himself went to Kolomna. But the khan, seeing that strong regiments were stationed along the Oka, went to the west, to Lithuanian land, in order to penetrate the Moscow possessions through the Ugra; then Ivan ordered his son Ivan the Young and brother Andrei the Lesser to hurry to the Ugra; The princes carried out the order, came to the river before the Tatars, occupied fords and carriages.
Akhmat, who was not allowed to cross the Ugra by the Moscow regiments, boasted all summer: “God willing, winter will fall on you, when all the rivers stop, there will be many roads to Rus'.” Fearing the fulfillment of this threat, Ivan, as soon as the Ugra became, on October 26 ordered his son and brother Andrei with all the regiments to retreat to Kremenets to fight with united forces. But Akhmat did not think of pursuing Russian troops. He stood on the Ugra until November 11, probably waiting for the promised Lithuanian help. Severe frosts began, but the Lithuanians never came, distracted by the attack of the Crimeans. Without allies, Akhmat did not dare to pursue the Russians further north. He turned back and went back to the steppe.
Contemporaries and descendants perceived the standing on the Ugra as the visible end of the Horde yoke. The power of the Grand Duke increased, and at the same time the cruelty of his character increased noticeably. He became intolerant and quick to kill. The further, the more consistently and boldly than before, Ivan III expanded his state and strengthened his autocracy.
In 1483, the Prince of Verei bequeathed his principality to Moscow. Then it was the turn of Moscow's long-time rival, Tver. In 1484, Moscow learned that the Tver prince Mikhail Borisovich struck up a friendship with Casimir of Lithuania and married the latter’s granddaughter. Ivan III declared war on Mikhail. Muscovites occupied the Tver volost, took and burned the cities. Lithuanian help did not come, and Mikhail was forced to ask for peace. Ivan gave peace. Mikhail promised not to have any relations with Casimir and the Horde. But in the same 1485, Michael’s messenger to Lithuania was intercepted. This time the reprisal was quick and harsh. On September 8, the Moscow army surrounded Tver, on the 10th the settlements were lit, and on the 11th the Tver boyars, abandoning their prince, came to Ivan’s camp and beat him with their foreheads, asking for service. And they were not denied that.
Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania at night. On the morning of September 12, 1485, Bishop Vassian and the entire Kholmsky clan, led by Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich, left Tver to meet Ivan. Following him came the smaller nobility, then “all the zemstvo people.” Tver swore allegiance to Ivan, who left his son Ivan the Young to reign there.
The Tver land gradually became part of the Moscow state of Ivan III. Over the years, traces of former independence were gradually erased. Moscow administration was introduced everywhere and Moscow order was established. According to the will of Ivan III (1504), the Tver land was divided between several rulers and lost its former integrity.
In 1487, Ivan III pacified Kazan and placed Muhammad-Emin on the throne. Now the Grand Duke had a free hand to attack in other directions from the final conquest of Vyatka (1489) to the attack on Lithuania and the Baltic states.
A new state that united under its rule vast spaces of Eastern Europe, has achieved a prominent international position. Already at the end of the 80s of the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow was a very impressive political force on the European horizon. In 1486, the Silesian Nikolai Poppel accidentally ended up in Moscow. Upon his return, he began to spread rumors about the Russian state and the wealth and power of the sovereign ruling in it. For many this was all news. Until then, there were rumors about Rus' in Western Europe as a country supposedly subject to the Polish kings.
In 1489, Poppel returned to Moscow as an official agent of the Holy Roman Emperor. At a secret audience, he invited Ivan III to petition the emperor to give him the title of king. From the point of view of Western European political thought, this was the only way to legalize the new state and introduce it into common system Western European states - at the same time and make it somewhat dependent on the empire. But in Moscow they held a different point of view. Ivan III answered Poppel with dignity: “We, by the grace of God, are sovereigns on our land from the beginning, from our first ancestors, and we have orders from God, both our ancestors and we... and orders, as we did not want this in advance from anyone, so and now we don’t want to.” In his response letter to the Emperor, Ivan III titled himself “By the grace of God, the great sovereign of all Rus'.” Occasionally, in relations with minor states, he even called himself king. His son Vasily III in 1518 for the first time officially called himself tsar in a letter sent to the emperor, and his grandson, Ivan IV, was solemnly crowned king in 1547 and thereby determined the place that his state was supposed to occupy among other cultural states peace.
A successful confrontation with the Great Horde and Lithuania became possible for Ivan III only under the condition of an alliance with Crimea. This is what the efforts of Moscow diplomacy were aimed at. Ivan attracted several influential Crimean “princes” to his side. They prompted Khan Mengli-Girey himself to become closer to Moscow.
Ivan III sought this alliance at the cost of great concessions. He even agreed, if the khan demanded, to title him “sovereign” and did not spare expenses on “funerations,” that is, annual gifts for his Tatar ally. Russian diplomacy ultimately managed to achieve the conclusion of the desired alliance. Crimean Tatars periodically began to raid Lithuanian possessions, penetrating far into the interior of the country, to Kyiv and beyond. By doing this, they not only caused material damage to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but also weakened its defense capability. The alliance with Mengli-Giray was also connected with another problem of Russian foreign policy of the late 15th - early 16th centuries - the problem of the final elimination of dependence on the Golden Horde. With its resolution, Ivan III, more than ever, acted not so much with weapons as through diplomacy.
The union with Crimea was the decisive moment in the fight against the Golden Horde. The Nogai and Siberian Tatars. Khan Akhmat, during the retreat from the Ugra, was killed in 1481 by the Tatars of the Siberian Khan Ibakh, and in 1502 the Golden Horde was finally defeated by Mengli-Girey.
The first Muscovite-Lithuanian war began in 1487 and lasted until 1494. The subject of dispute in this war was border areas with an uncertain or ambivalent political status. On the southern and western borders, petty Orthodox princes with their estates continually came under the authority of Moscow. The Odoevsky princes were the first to be transferred, then the Vorotynsky and Belevsky princes. These petty princes constantly quarreled with their Lithuanian neighbors - in fact, the war did not stop on the southern borders, but in Moscow and Vilna they maintained a semblance of peace for a long time.
Those who transferred to Moscow service immediately received their former possessions as a grant. To defend the “truth” and restore the “legal rights” of his new subjects, Ivan III sent small detachments.
The idea of the campaign of 1487-1494 was to achieve success quietly, without unnecessary noise. Ivan III avoided a large-scale war with Lithuania. This could have caused similar actions on the part of Lithuania and Poland, at the same time rallying the “supreme princes” and pushing them into the arms of Casemir.
In June 1492, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV died. His sons divided the inheritance. Jan Olbracht received the Polish crown, and Alexander Kazimirovich received the Lithuanian throne. This significantly weakened the potential of Moscow’s enemy.
Ivan III, together with Mengli-Girey, immediately began a war against Lithuania. Although, according to Moscow diplomats, there was no war; there was only a return under the old power of the Moscow Grand Duke of those of his service princes who either temporarily fell away from him in the troubled years under Vasily Vasilyevich, or had previously served “on both sides.”
Things went well for Moscow. The governors took Meshchovsk, Serpeisk, Vyazma. The princes of Vyazemsky, Mezetsky, Novosilsky and other Lithuanian owners went into the service of the Moscow sovereign. Alexander Kazimirovich realized that it would be difficult for him to fight Moscow and Mengli-Girey; he planned to marry Ivan’s daughter, Elena, and thus create lasting peace between the two states. Negotiations proceeded sluggishly until January 1494. Finally, on February 5, peace was concluded, according to which Alexander recognized the new Moscow borders, the new title of the Moscow Grand Duke. Under such conditions, Ivan agreed to marry his daughter to him.
The peace treaty with Lithuania can be considered the most important military and diplomatic success of Ivan III. “The significance of the peace treaty for Russia was great,” notes the famous historian A.A. Zimin. - The border with the Principality of Lithuania in the west moved significantly away. Two bridgeheads were created for the further struggle for Russian lands, one was aimed at Smolensk, and the other was wedged into the thickness of the Seversky lands.”
As one might expect, this “marriage of convenience” turned out to be difficult for both Alexander and Elena.
In 1500, relations between Moscow and Vilna turned into outright hostility over new defections of princes to the side of Moscow, henchmen of Lithuania. Ivan sent his son-in-law a “letter of marking” and after that sent an army to Lithuania. The Crimeans, as usual, helped the Russian army. Many Ukrainian princes, in order to avoid ruin, hastened to surrender to the rule of Moscow. In 1503, a truce was concluded for a period of six years. The question of the ownership of the lands captured by Ivan, the area of which was about a third of the entire territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, remained open. Lithuania continued to consider them its own. However, in fact they remained part of the Moscow state.
Ivan III viewed the Blagoveshchensk truce as a brief respite. However, further expansion had to be carried out by his successors.
Ivan III completely subordinated his international policy to the “gathering of Russian lands.” The Anti-Turkish League did not present anything tempting to him. In response to the promise of a “Constantinople fatherland,” Moscow responded that “the Great Prince wants a fatherland for his Russian land.”
Moreover, the Russian state was interested in peaceful relations with the Ottoman Porte in order to develop its Black Sea trade. The relations between the Russian state and Turkey that began in the 90s of the 15th century were conducted in invariably benevolent forms.
As for relations with the Roman Empire, Ivan III sought not only to maintain friendly relations, but also to take advantage of the rivalry between Emperor Maximilian and the Polish Jagiellonians over Hungary. He proposed an alliance and outlined a plan for the future division of the spoils of Hungary - to Maximilian, Lithuania with the Russian lands enslaved by it - to himself. However, Maximilian thought to achieve his goals peacefully. Depending on the fluctuations in German-Polish relations, changes also occurred in German-Russian relations, until Maximilian found it more profitable for himself to reconcile with Poland and even offered his mediation to reconcile the Russian state with it.
Under Ivan III, the line of foreign policy of the Russian state in the Baltic region was outlined. The annexation of Novgorod and Pskov to Moscow required new trade alliances in the Baltic and accelerated the war with the Livonian Order. The campaign of Russian troops against Livonia in 1480-1481 was successful for the Moscow prince. After victories in the lands of Livonia, the army left, and in September 1481 a truce was concluded for ten years.
In counterbalance to Russian interest in Baltic trade, the order put forward territorial issues. In 1491, Simon Borch came to Moscow with an embassy to extend the truce. Negotiations that lasted almost two years boiled down to trade issues; the Moscow Grand Duke demanded guarantees for transit merchants, as well as the restoration of the Russian church in Revel. In 1493 the treaty was extended for ten years. The alliance with Livonia provided Russia with good trade relations with the Hanseatic League, which Ivan III was interested in, since the Moscow Grand Duke could thus control the stable centuries-old relations between Novgorod, Pskov and the Hanseatic cities.
However, a new war with Livonia soon began, and in the 16th century, relations with the order acquired a slightly different shade; they were increasingly affected by the relations of both sides with the Polish-Lithuanian state. It was Livonia's failure to fulfill the terms of the 1503 treaty that provided the formal pretext for the start of the Livonian War in 1558. In the 90s of the 15th century, negotiations with Denmark became more active. After concluding an agreement with the Hansa, an embassy came from Denmark to negotiate “brotherhood,” and in 1493 Ivan III concluded a “final agreement” with the king. This alliance was directed against Sweden, which systematically attacked the Korelian lands, the ancient possessions of Novgorod, which were transferred to Moscow. In addition to the anti-Swedish orientation, relations with Denmark also acquired a shade of struggle against the monopoly of Hanseatic trade, where England was Denmark's ally.
At the beginning of 1503, Livonian representatives, together with ambassadors from the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander, arrived in Moscow to negotiate peace. Having slightly shown off in front of the Livonians, Prince Ivan concluded a truce with them for a period of six years. The parties returned to the borders and relations that existed between them before the war of 1501-1502.
The defeat of the Hanseatic court in Novgorod and the establishment of friendly relations with Denmark were undoubtedly aimed at freeing Novgorod trade from the obstacles that the almighty Hanse put in front of it. On the other hand, the demand for tribute from the Yuryev bishopric (Dorpt region), according to an agreement with the Livonian order in 1503, was the first step towards the spread of Russian political influence to Livonia.
In the fall of 1503, Ivan III suffered from paralysis “... it took away his arm and leg and eye.” He named his son Vasily as his heir.
As a result of Ivan's subtle and careful policy III Russian By the beginning of the 16th century, the state, without claiming a decisive role in Europe, occupied an honorable international position in it.
“Towards the end of the reign of Ivan III, we see him sitting on an independent throne. Next to him is the daughter of the last Byzantine emperor. At his feet is Kazan, the ruins of the Golden Horde flock to his court. Novgorod and other Russian republics are enslaved. Lithuania has been cut down, and the Lithuanian sovereign is a tool in the hands of Ivan. The Livonian knights are defeated."