1. What is Early Modern Time? What is its chronological framework?
New time is the time after the Middle Ages, different, however, from the modern time in which we live. It lasted from the end of the 15th century until the end of the First World War.
2. What is the content and essence of modernization? How are the concepts of “traditional society”, “industrial society”, and “modernization” related?
Modernization is the process of updating traditional society, entering the path of movement and industrial society and improving the latter.
3. What are the main consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries for European and world history?
Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries:
(a) the spread of European achievements of science and technology began;
(b) European scientists enriched their knowledge with materials from newly discovered lands;
(c) coffee, cocoa, tea, vanilla, and new spices were brought to Europe;
(d) Europeans brought horses, small and large livestock, grain crops, grapes, olive trees, and sugar cane to America (which became the source of prosperity for the West Indian colonies); in Africa they contributed to the cultivation of wheat, beans, sweet potatoes, in China - peanuts and corn;
(e) European expansion began;
(f) expansion was soon accompanied by the slave trade;
(g) many civilizations and peoples (primarily in America) were destroyed;
(h) there were constant wars for the possession of colonies;
(i) the influx of gold and silver caused inflation in Europe, rising prices, which primarily affected the poor.
4. What is a price revolution? What significance did it have for modernization?
A price revolution is a fairly significant inflation, an increase in prices for all goods in Western Europe starting around the 1540s, most likely due to the import of huge quantities of precious metals and the New World (many more coins were minted as a result, while the number of goods did not increase as dramatically). Everyone who received fixed incomes (ground rent, wages) lost from the price revolution. Therefore, labor has become more accessible to entrepreneurs. Those who benefited from it were those who received profits from trade and production, that is, those who carried out modernization. Most of them invested the funds received in expanding their business, that is, in further modernization. In addition, their success made their business more attractive and more people and, accordingly, capital poured into modernization. Therefore, we can conclude: the price revolution was a disaster for large sections of the population, but it became a blessing for modernization.
5. Explain the meaning of the term “manufacturing capitalism”. What are the differences between centralized manufactories and dispersed ones?
Manufacture is an enterprise with a division of labor and manual production; accordingly, manufacturing capitalism is based on this form of production. There were two types of manufactories. In the scattered area, the same artisans worked at their previous jobs, but were cut off by the merchant-entrepreneur from purchasing raw materials and marketing products. The future lay in centralized factories, in which all workers worked in one room. Then it was easier to organize a real division of labor.
6. What was the significance of the Renaissance in changing the spiritual sphere of society? What principles and ideas can be considered the most important for the ideology of the Renaissance?
The Renaissance finally and irrevocably changed the spiritual life of Western Europe. Suffice it to recall that it was the figures of the Renaissance who developed the term Modern Time, distinguishing it from the earlier period of the Middle Ages. The most important things in the Renaissance were a return to the aesthetic ideals of antiquity and the principles of humanism, including the ideals of individualism and anthropocentrism.
7. What were the causes and essence of the Reformation?
The essence of the reformation was the creation of a new, different catholic church with new rules, which tried to return to the ideals of the first Christians. The reasons for creating such a church are as follows:
(a) the hierarchs of the Catholic Church preached contempt for worldly goods, but they themselves lived in luxury;
(b) church offices were sold;
(c) any swindler could buy absolution (indulgence) for a certain amount;
(d) church rituals were expensive, especially for the poor;
(e) despite the gospel commandments about the equality of all Christians, the church owned the serfs.
8. Describe the main directions of the Reformation. How are the teachings of Luther and Calvin similar and how do they differ from each other?
Both Lutheranism and Calvinism did not recognize the supremacy of the Pope, celibacy, church land ownership and the luxurious decoration of churches. Both movements abolished monasteries and recognized only some of the church sacraments. At the same time, there are quite a few differences between Lutheranism and Calvinism. J. Calvin believed that the Lord determined in advance, long before birth, which of the people after death would be destined for hellish torment and who would be destined for heavenly bliss. God helps His chosen ones and sends them good luck. Therefore, success in all matters, including trade and even usury, is a sign of the Creator’s favor. M. Luther, on the contrary, denounced usurers. The Lutheran Church advocated obedience to any authorities and submitted to them, the Calvinist Church retained autonomy and supported resistance to tyrants.
9. What is the historical significance of the Reformation?
Meaning of the Reformation:
(a) new church organizations have arisen in many countries;
(b) the Catholic Church also underwent significant changes in its efforts to resist the Reformation;
(c) enmity between Catholics and Protestants became the cause or occasion for many wars, including civil ones;
(d) hostility between faiths resulted in significant bloodshed outside the battlefield (the most famous examples are the activities of the Inquisition and the Night of St. Bartholomew);
(e) secularization provided the means for the development of many states;
(f) the change in the status of the church led to changes in society;
(g) it was the Reformation that became the driving force of the revolution in the Netherlands;
(h) polemics between confessions in journalism gave impetus to the development of printing.
10. What are the features of European society in the 18th century? Why do historians talk about this time as a period of crisis of the “old order”?
In the 18th century, despite several centuries of modernization, the vast majority of the population continued to engage in agriculture, a person’s position was determined primarily by origin. The distinction between classes became even stricter than in the Middle Ages. These features were especially evident in France. It was for her that the concept of the “old order” was invented, in order to emphasize the differences from the “new order” that the revolution created.
11. What processes that took place in the 18th century allow us to talk about the continuation and expansion of modernization?
The continuation and expansion of modernization is indicated, first of all, by the beginning of the industrial revolution. She raised production to a new level and began to change society, which finally ceased to be agrarian. It was the industrial revolution that ensured the transition to an industrial society; this transition is considered the essence of modernization in those centuries.
Problems of periodization
Modern times, in short, are a long period in the history of civilization and humanity, which has a certain time frame. It is located between the Middle Ages and modern times. As in the case of the periodization of the Middle Ages, in different countries the beginning of a new time is defined in different ways.
If you take Soviet time, then the date of the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century was taken as the beginning. European countries considered the discovery of America by Columbus, the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, the Reformation, and the French Revolution as the starting point of modern times.
The situation with determining the end of the period of modern time is even more unclear. For a long time it was considered the revolution in Russia of 1917. Later, the majority of historians decided to accept the First world war.
The concept of new time, briefly speaking, appeared in the 15th century, during the Renaissance (Renaissance). Then humanists proposed a rough division of history into three periods: ancient, Middle Ages and modern times. Thus, they wanted to delimit and simplify the study of human civilization.
Modern times, in short, are still a rather conventional concept, since all countries entered it in different time. Disputes about the time frame of this historical period continue in modern historiography (the science that studies history) to this day.
The history of modern times is sometimes divided into two large periods:
1. XVII - XVIII centuries;
2. XX century
New time - meaning and influence
The new era was a stage of great changes in all spheres of life: economic, social, political. It takes more than short period, if you compare it with the Middle Ages, and even more so, with the ancient world, but in history this period is extremely important. The famous geographical discoveries and the book of Nicolaus Copernicus changed people’s old ideas about the Earth and expanded human knowledge about the world.
The Reformation, which took place throughout all European countries, abolished the power of the popes over the consciousness of people, and led to the emergence of the Protestant movement. The humanists of the Renaissance achieved the emergence of many universities and led to a complete revolution in human consciousness, explaining his place in the world around him.
In the modern era, in short, humanity has realized that it actually lives in a small space. Geographical discoveries brought countries and peoples closer together. In the Middle Ages everything was different. The slow speed of movement and the inability to cross the ocean led to the fact that there was no reliable information even about neighboring countries.
Western Europe has expanded in modern times, establishing its dominance over most countries in Asia and Africa. For the peoples of these countries, modern times became a period of brutal colonization by European invaders.
How did the small countries of Western Europe manage to subjugate vast territories in Africa and Asia in a short time? There were several reasons for this. European countries have come far ahead in their development. In the East, the life of the subjects, their lands and property belonged to the ruler. What was most valued there was not the personal qualities of a person, but the interests of the community. The basis of the economy was agriculture. In the West everything was different. Above all were human rights, his personal qualities, the desire for profit and prosperity. The cities that emerged in the Middle Ages led to the emergence of a variety of crafts and breakthroughs in the development of technology. In this regard, European countries have gone far ahead of the eastern countries.
The emergence of industrial society
Modern times, in short, have led to changes in the political system in many countries. The rapid development of trade, especially during the period of famous geographical discoveries, the emergence of banking, the emergence of manufactures began to increasingly contradict the traditional economy and political system. Appeared new class, the bourgeoisie, is gradually beginning to play a significant role in the state.
In the 18th century, the power of the bourgeoisie increased many times over. In many countries, the contradictions between the capitalist mode of production and the feudal system that reached their limit led to bourgeois revolutions. This happened in England and France. Capitalism is finally winning in Europe. The industrial revolution begins, and obsolete manufacturing is replaced by the factory.
Most European countries in modern times are experiencing a difficult time of changing forms of power, a crisis of absolute monarchy. As a result of changes in the political system, parliamentary democracy emerges in the most progressive countries. During the same period, it begins to take shape modern system international relations.
Change in thinking
Modern times, in short, are a period of a kind of second Renaissance. Reality showed how much can actually be done and changed a common person. Gradually, a thought is formed in the human mind - a person can actually do anything. A conviction emerges that he can subjugate nature and change his future.
Philosophy is undergoing great development. Occurs in literally her revival. Philosophy managed to retain its dominant position among the sciences. Philosophers of modern times sincerely believed that society needed their ideas. A completely new philosophy is being formed, the problems of which remain important today.
Technology and production
Modern times are a period of rapid development of technology. One of the important inventions of that time, which played a huge role in the development of culture, was printing. The advent of the printing press greatly accelerated the speed of book creation. Previously, books were copied by hand, or created using stamps, and this process took a huge amount of time. Now everything has become much simpler.
In the 18th century in England, where there was a large raw material base, the first spinning, weaving and sewing machines were created. The development of navigation, the growth of armies, the emergence of light industry leads to an increased role of mechanical engineering and metallurgical industry. At the beginning of the 18th century, Europeans learned to smelt cheap cast iron and discovered the secret of steel. At the same time, the Martin brothers invented a furnace that made it possible to restore steel from cast iron. In their honor, it was named an open-hearth furnace. In the 19th century, the problem of transportation was solved large quantity raw materials and products - the steam locomotive and the steamship were invented.
Culture in Modern Times
The heyday of European culture occurs in the XVII - XVIII centuries. Thanks to the works of Galileo and Copernicus, a new picture of the world is being created - heliocentric. In science, what comes first is not the authority of the scientist, but personal experience and experiments.
Great changes are taking place in art. New styles appear - baroque and classicism.
In the 18th century, as in its time during the Renaissance, there was a great need for educators. A brilliant galaxy of minds is emerging in almost every field of art and science. These are Voltaire, Lomonosov, Locke, Kant, Diderot, Rousseau. Their common unifying feature was a great faith in science and progress.
Its roots go back not so much to the ancient era as to the Middle Ages, when the prerequisites for a new European civilization gradually matured and the main features that determined its originality were formed. The transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age was not sudden, it was a rather long process. During the interaction of elements of the old and emerging societies, their synthesis took place. In terms of content, the New Age is much richer than Antiquity or the Middle Ages, since in one form or another it preserves the heritage of all previous eras.
A turning point in the historical destinies of Europe clearly emerged at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. This time was characterized by the development of the most important historical processes that completely changed the course of world history. Great geographical discoveries expanded the scope of the world known to Europeans to the global scale of the entire planet. There was a tremendous rise of a new, Renaissance culture. The Italian Renaissance and profound changes in the culture of other countries were the first signs of the advent of a new era in Europe. The religious Reformation was also of great importance, the consequence of which, along with the Renaissance, was the formation of a new spiritual culture and worldview, which was fundamentally different from the medieval views on the world. The establishment of a new faith was accompanied by brutal religious wars that lasted almost a century.
Modern times, therefore, began when, as a result of the active creative activity of Europeans, their geographical, intellectual and spiritual horizons, as well as material opportunities, sharply expanded. The formation of the world market and the worldwide expansion of European civilization that took place during this historical period created the prerequisites for the subsequent globalization of phenomena and processes occurring on the globe. From that time on, the history of any country was not only the history of its internal development, but also the history of its entry into the emerging global economic, political and cultural space.
In the last third of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. the prerequisites for the confrontation that resulted in the First World War, as well as the spiritual origins of the culture of modern times, were formed. Material from the site
Industrial revolution that occurred in the 19th century. in the countries of European civilization, gave them unprecedented economic, technical and military advantage, allowed to establish its dominance over most of the globe. The formation of a single world market began. In the 19th century the characteristic features and main problems of industrial society were revealed. Among them are the formation of constitutional government, the establishment of democracy, the growth of nationalism, the development of the socialist movement, etc. Much from the 19th century. remained a legacy of the twentieth century, which is characterized as the time of the masses, in the historical arena for the first time the masses who were not previously organized in the party declared themselves.
Nnew time (beg. XVI V. - 1918 G.)
I period new history(beg. XVI - 60s XIX centuries)
The period covers the time of formation in Western Europe and North America industrial (capitalist) society, giving a person the opportunity for the most complete self-realization. During this period, people invented the motor, car, steamship, steam locomotive, railway, diesel, open-hearth furnace, aviation, telephone, radio, television, electric light. In Asia, traditional (feudal) society continued to dominate. The land was in the hands of the state (monarch), there was no principle of primogeniture (seniority). These factors slowed down the processes of transformation of handicraft industries into factories, consolidation of farms, concentration of capital in one hand, and, consequently, the development of capitalism.
Historical sources of the period: F. de Monluze “On the French Monarchy”, F. Mile “History of the French Revolution”,
A. de Lomartin “History of the Girondins”, Iselli “On the History of Humanity”, F. Schiller “History of the Thirty Years’ War”,
J. Meslier “History of Louis XVI”, Voltaire “History of Russia during the period of Peter the Great”, G. Gallom “History of England from Henry VII to George II (1485-1760)”, G. Leo “History of the Italian states”, N.M. . Karamzin “History of the Russian State”, J. Bancroft “History of the United States”.
I stage - XVI-XVIII bb.
During this period, the prerequisites for the emergence of capitalism were formed. Bourgeois revolutions took place in Western Europe and North America.
The reasons for the great geographical discoveries: 1) the development of commodity production required additional markets for raw materials;
2) the need for additional funds and the thirst for enrichment; 3) control Ottoman Empire over international trade routes (Silk and through the Mediterranean Sea) forced us to look for new routes to Asia.
The initiators of great geographical discoveries were the Portuguese and Spaniards.
The Portuguese in the 20-30s of the 15th century. discovered Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, Guinea, the Cape Verde Islands, and Sierra Leone.
Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) in 1468 circled the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) and entered the Indian Ocean, but did not reach India.
Christopher Columbus (Spain) 10/12/1492 landed on the island of San Salvador, discovered Haiti and Cuba. He believed that he had sailed to India and discovered America; the first viceroy of the captured lands Vasco da Gama in 1498. opened the sea route to India through Atlantic Ocean.
Amerigo Vespucci, as part of a Portuguese expedition (1499-1501), explored the shores of Brazil and came to the conclusion that the open lands were not India. He called them the New World.
P. Toscanelli in the 15th century. compiled a map of the world, but made a mistake in determining the length of the equator by 12 thousand km. Scientists subsequently called this mistake “a great mistake that led to a great discovery.”
In 1507 M. Waldseemüller proposed to name the new continent America in honor of Vespucci.
In 1515 The first globe was created in Germany, on which New World was named America. Since 1569 the name appeared on the maps.
In 1519 Nunez Balloba founded Panama, the first city on the American continent.
Ferdinand Magellan in 1519-22. committed trip around the world, proving that the Earth is round. Died in the Philippine Islands.
In 1605 Spaniard Luis Vaez de Torres discovered Australia.
Portugal: Sunda and Moluccas Islands in Asia, Brazil (discovered by Cabral in 1500):
Spain: 1510 - Cuba, 1529 - Philippines; Cortez conquered the Mayans (Mexico) before 1679, in the 20-40s of the 16th century. Colombia was conquered
Ecuador, Peru (Inca; Pissaro), Bolivia, later Chile and Argentina. 1510 - mid. XVII century - politics of conquest (conquest).
1512 - a law prohibiting the turning of Indians into slaves. For governance, 2 viceroyalties were established:
New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean) and Peru (all of South America, except Brazil).
England: in the 16th century. - Ireland and Scotland, in North America - Virginia (1607). 1600 - founding of the East India Company.
France: - XVII century - Canada
Holland - 1652 Cape Colony in South Africa
The consequences of the great geographical discoveries: 1) world trade arose: 2) cocoa, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, corn were brought to Europe from America, tea, coffee, oranges from Asia; 3) Genoa and Venice lost their importance as centers of trade; world trade was concentrated in the ports of the Netherlands (the world center is Antwerp), England, Portugal (Lisbon) and Spain (Seville).
Socio-economic changes in Western Europe:
The emergence of new nobles - feudal lords who use hired labor and are engaged in trade and entrepreneurship;
K ser. XVII century merchants-negotiators and bankers began to represent the highest stratum of society;
From the 17th century the construction of covered markets (the first in London and Paris); daily markets;
The emergence of trading companies;
The emergence of manufacture - production based on the division of manual labor;
Improvement of production technology (blast furnace, water engine, watches);
Improvement of military affairs (mortars (XVI century), muskets (XVII), pistols, grenades, explosive shells, rifle butts)
Loss of the meaning of chivalry as a standard of courage.
Reformation of the Catholic Church - the emergence of Protestantism (officially since 1555 (1517))
In the Czech Republic - Jan Hus. Hussite wars 1419-34. (Jan Zizka)
In Germany - in 1517. Martin Luther put forward the appeal “95 Theses”, condemning indulgences, submission to the Rissky Pope, and the enrichment of churches. Peasants' support for him resulted in the Peasants' War of 1524-26. against serfdom, but not for the elimination of feudal orders, but for personal freedom (Thomas Münzer);
1526 - The German Reichstag passed a law on the right of princes to choose their religion. In 1529 the law was repealed, the “Protestation” was signed by 5 princes and a number of cities.
Since 1555 The princes received the right from the Pope to choose the Lutheran religion.
In Switzerland - John Calvin; Geneva is Protestant Rome.
Calvinism. In England, Henry VIII separated the church from Rome (the Anglican Church). In Denmark and Sweden, the reformation was carried out by kings with the support of nobles.
In France - Huguenots. To fight the Protestants in 1540. the Jesuit order (“Society of Jesus”) was created; founder - Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola.
Renaissance (Renaissance).
Origins of the Renaissance: ancient ( Ancient Greece and Rome) art and scientific thought Central Asia. The Renaissance originated in Italy.
Literature: Shakespeare (“Hamlet”, “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”), Miguel de Cervantes (“Don Quixote”), Lope de Vega (1562-1635)
Humanist writers: Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) - “Book of Songs”, “Letters in Verse”
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406)
Thomas More (1478-1535) - “The Golden Book on the best structure of the state and on the new island of Utopia”; "utopia" - a non-existent place
Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) - “Gargantua and Pantagruel”
Fine arts: Leonardo da Vinci - artist, poet, architect, sculptor, musician, engineer-inventor; called painting “the princess of the arts” (“Madonna and Child”, wall painting “The Last Vespers”);
Raphael Santi (1483-1520) "Sistine Madonna"
Michelangelo Buonarroti - sculptor, painter, architect, military engineer, poet (“David”); from 1546 he led the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral and the Capitol in Rome
Albrecht Durer (German) - artist, engineer, architect, expert on ancient languages, poet (engravings, portraits)
Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch) - portrait, landscape, still life (“Return of the Prodigal Son”)
Diego Velazquez (Spanish) - “Painter of Truth” (“Spinners”)
El Greco (Spanish) - “The Holy Family”, “Portrait of an Unknown”
Science: N. Copernicus (1473-43) proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun and its axis (heliocentric system) in the book “On Circulation” celestial spheres"(1543); in 1616 the Inquisition banned the teachings of Copernicus
D. Bruno (1548-1600) in his work “The Philosophy of Cry” put forward a theory about the infinity of the world; burned at the stake by the Inquisition; on the grave it is written: “He demanded freedom of thought for all peoples, and was executed for this demand” (“He raised his voice for freedom of thought for all peoples and went to his death for this freedom”)
G. Galileo (1564-1642) built the first telescope, discovered mountains on the Moon, satellites of Jupiter, spots on the Sun and phases of Venus; under torture of the Inquisition he was forced to renounce his views; rehabilitated today time of John Paul II.
John Locke developed the doctrine of the rights of man to life, liberty and property; created the doctrine of the division of state power into legislative and executive.
Inventions: windmill, lathe, pump, use of coal, explosion method in ore mining, with gray. XVI century typography.
Netherlands
State on the territory of modern. Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland and parts of France; consisted of 17 provinces; center - Antwerp; depending on Spain. "Lowlands"
1566 - the uprising against Spanish rule coincided with the struggle for church reform (Protestantism); attempt to suppress the uprising by the Spanish Duke of Alba "guez" ("ragamuffins") - partisans.
1572 - proclamation of William of Orange as ruler of the northern territories (the south remained with Spain).
1573 - Alba left the Netherlands; only the south of the country remained with Spain.
1579 - creation of the “Union of Utrecht” (unification of 7 provinces) to fight the Spaniards; Dutch Republic.
1609 - recognition by Spain of the independence of the Dutch Republic; capital - Amsterdam; the first bourgeois state.
1652 - Cape Colony in South Africa.
England
XVI century for England this is the reformation, the strengthening of absolutism and the establishment of dominance at sea.
Henry VIII (Tudor) subordinated the entire country to a single center - London (absolutist monarchy), reformed the church - proclaimed himself the head of the church and confiscated 2/3 of church lands.
His daughter Maria (1553-58) tried to carry out a counter-reformation (returning the country to Catholicism).
1554 - restoration of the power of the Pope in England.
Mary's repressive policy brought Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to the throne. Her main task was to strengthen the unity of England and the struggle for supremacy at sea. In 1588 The English fleet defeated the "Invincible Armada" of Spain.
With the death of Elizabeth, the Tudor dynasty ended. James VI - Stuart.
1600 - opening of the first exchange.
1628 - Parliament got the king to sign the “Bill of Rights” and the “Petition of Rights”, prohibiting the introduction of new taxes and imprisonment without trial; dispersal of parliament - establishment of the absolute power of the king.
3.11.1640 - convening of parliament - the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution; dissolution of extraordinary courts and the “Privy Council” of the king, restriction of the ecclesiastical court, release of political prisoners.
1641 - “The Great Remonstrance” - a list of the king’s abuses and the political demands of parliament.
1642 - civil war between supporters of the monarchy and the bourgeoisie.
1643 - the conclusion of an alliance between the English Parliament and Scotland.
07/14/1645 - Battle of Naseby (defeat of the king’s troops).
1649 - abolition of royal power (execution of Charles I); 05/19/1649 proclamation of the republic; unicameral parliament; head of the executive branch (Council of State) - Oliver Cromwell; conquest of Scotland and Ireland.
1653 - dispersal of parliament; Cromwell - Lord Protector (dictator).
1660 - restoration of the monarchy (Charles II).
1685 - King James II tried to restore Catholicism.
1688 - palace coup “Glorious Revolution” by William of Orange (Holland) - overthrow of James II, adoption of the “Declaration of Rights”, England - limited monarchy.
1701-14 - war with France for the Spanish throne; capture of Gibraltar.
1707 - Union of England and Scotland - Great Britain.
since 1716 - Parliamentary term of office is 6 years.
XVIII century - “second hundred years war"- confrontation between England and France.
XVIII century - industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine labor.
1733 - John Kay invented the flying shuttle.
1765 - James Hargreaves invented the periodic spinning jenny; D. Wyatt - steam engine.
1767 E. Cartwright invented the mechanical loom. Abraham Derby invented new methods of casting iron, Abraham Derby - his son introduced coke blast furnace smelting, Abraham Derby - his grandson - in 1779. built a bridge from cast iron parts.
1774 D. Wilkinson invented the lathe.
1788 - the first cast iron pipes.
1814 - steam locomotive D. Stephenson.
The “Luddites” were a labor movement that destroyed machine tools and saw them as the cause of their troubles.
France
II sex. XVI century - “Revolt of the crokans” (“rodents”) - 40 thousand peasants opposed the arbitrariness of tax farmers and officials.
The Estates General (parliament) did not play the same role in France as in England. From 1614 throughout the 17th century they were not convened. There were 17 regional parliaments overseeing the courts. Big influence had the Parisian Parliament, it controlled 1/3 of the country and could appoint a regent in case of minority of the heir.
In France, Protestantism (Huguenots) spread in the south, while the north (the king) remained Catholic. The massacre of the Huguenots, organized by a supporter of the king, the Duke of Guise, became the reason Religious War(1562-98 - 32 years old).
08/24/1572 - “Bartholomew’s Night” (mass murder of Huguenots). Prohibition of Protestantism.
1589 - assassination of King Henry III. On the throne is the leader of the Protestants - Henry of Navarre - Henry IV (Bourbon dynasty), who converted to Catholicism. Strengthening personal power.
1598 - Edict of Nantes (state religion - Catholicism, Huguenots have the right to worship; religious truce).
1610-43 - the reign of Louis XIII and Cardinal (First Minister) Richelieu - the establishment of the sole power of the king.
1643-1715 - Louis XIV (“The State is me”) - absolute monarchy; cardinal and first minister Mazarin.
1756-63 - The Seven Years' War between England and France for the Austrian inheritance and colonies; 1763 - ousting France from Canada.
05/04/1789 - convening of the Estates General by Louis XVI in order to increase taxes.
06/17/1789 Deputies from the 3rd estate established a new parliament - the National (Constituent) Assembly.
07/14/1789 - storming of the Bastille; the king recognized the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly; power in your hands Paris Commune; a constitutional monarchy; Great French revolution. Parties: royalists - supporters of the monarchy; Girondins - moderate liberals, supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Jacobins are supporters of the republic.
1789 - adoption of the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights; elimination of feudal relations; confiscation of land from the church.
September 1791 - adoption of the Constitution; aggression of Austria, Spain and Great Britain.
08/10/1792 - uprising in Paris; elections to the new parliament - the National Convention.
09/21/1792 France is a republic.
Rouget de Lisle wrote the "Battle Song of the Army of the Rhine" which is still the anthem of France.
01/21/1793 - execution of the king.
06/2/1793 - as a result of the uprising, power passed from the Girondins to the Jacobins; Committee of Public Safety - Robespierre; establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship.
1793 - adoption of a new Constitution, which consolidated the abolition of feudal relations; Law “On Suspicious Persons”.
1794 - expulsion of interventionists from the country.
07/27/1794 -overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship; execution of Robespierre.
1795 - new Constitution; the Girondins are in power; executive power - Directory (1795-99).
11/19/1799 - coup d'état; power in the hands of 3 consuls led by Napoleon; elimination of all democratic freedoms
Russia
The unification of Russian lands continued under Vasily III(1505-33). Pskov, Smolensk, and the Ryazan principality were annexed.
20-20s XVI century - creation of a single centralized state. Moscow becomes the capital of the Russian state.
Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84) - the first Russian Tsar, crowned by Metropolitan Macarius in 1547.
1547 - The elected Rada is an unofficial government.
1549 - convening of the Zemsky Sobor - the first representative assembly; Russia is an estate-representative monarchy.
1550 - the new Code of Law limited the rights of the boyars and established self-government bodies.
1552 - conquest of the Kazan Khanate.
1556 - conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate.
1582 - conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
1558-83 - The Livonian War - the loss of almost the entire Baltic coast.
1565-72 - oprichnina - a special royal possession on which noblemen loyal to the tsar settled; guardsmen - the tsar's personal guard, a punitive body against the boyars (Malyuta Skuratov).
1584-98 - reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor (the last of the Rurikovichs; the dynasty ruled for 700 years).
1598 - Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as Tsar.
1605 - death of Godunov; the beginning of the Troubles; False Dmitry I (monk Grigory Otrepiev) at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian army entered Moscow.
1606-10 - Tsar - Boyar Vasily Shuisky.
1608 - False Dmitry II (“Tushino thief”).
1609 - capture of Moscow by Polish troops.
1611-12 - the people's militia led by the townsman Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky; liberation of Moscow.
1613 - The Zemsky Sobor elected a tsar - 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (Romanov dynasty until 1917).
1645-76 - the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.
1649 - The “Conciliar Code” destroyed feudal fragmentation and legitimized serfdom(abolished the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another), noble lands turned into patrimony (inheritance law).
1667-71 - uprising of S. Razin.
In the 17th century manufactories appeared in Russia (the first in ferrous metallurgy), cash dues. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan played a large role in foreign trade; the British and Dutch acted as intermediaries in foreign trade. - The “New Trade Code,” which prohibits foreigners from conducting retail trade in the domestic market, is the beginning of the struggle to transform Russia into a strong maritime power.
1696-1725 - Peter I is on the throne.
1695-96 - unsuccessful Azov campaign; start of ship construction.
1700-21 - Northern War with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.
05/16/1703 - the beginning of the construction of St. Petersburg, from 1712. - capital of Russia.
1707-09 - peasant war led by K. Bulavin.
1709 - The Battle of Poltava - the defeat of the Swedish army.
1714 - Battle of Gangut - defeat of the Swedish fleet; expedition to the Khiva Khanate.
since 1721 Peter I - Emperor; absolute monarchy.
1721 - end of the Northern War (Peace of Nystad; Finland).
Reforms: recruitment of peasants into the army and their lifelong service; 1708 - division of the state into provinces;
1711 - the Senate was introduced instead of the Boyar Duma; 1715 - Naval Academy; 1718-20 - abolition of orders, introduction of collegiums;
1719 - Kunstkamera (museum); 1721 - subordination of the church to the Synod, the head of the church is not the metropolitan, but the patriarch;
1722 - “Table of Ranks” - military and secular positions; 1725 - St. Petersburg Academy Sci.
1725-27 - Catherine I (Peter’s wife) on the throne with the support of Menshikov; establishment of the Supreme Privy Council, limiting the power of the empress.
1727-30 - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter II.
1730-40 - reign of Peter I’s niece, Anna Ioanovna; Biron.
1741-61 - reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth.
1761-62 - reign of the grandson of Peter I - Peter III; displaced by his wife, Catherine II.
1762-96 - Catherine II; strengthening the privileges of the nobles, strengthening serfdom.
1773-75 - peasant war led by E. Pugachev.
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I.
Since 1725 By 1800 there were 8 representatives of the Romanov dynasty on the throne.
Foreign policy: 1654 - annexation of parts of Ukraine and Belarus to Russia; con. XVI - XVIII centuries. - development of Siberia (at the end of the 17th century the Russian population of Siberia was 150 thousand people); 1731 - annexation of part of Kazakhstan; 1756-63 - participation in Seven Years' War with Prussia; 1768-74 - Russian-Turkish war (Russian victory; Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace); 1783 - annexation of Crimea, 1787-91. - Russian-Turkish war (Peace of Yasin), 1788-90. - war with Sweden (Revel Peace).
The basic principle foreign policy: expansion of borders due to adjacent territories.
In the second half of the 18th century. Signs of capitalism began to appear in Russia.
1763 - banning Europeans from moving to the West.
1765 - organization "Sons of Liberty" against colonial dependence.
1774 - representatives of 13 states gathered in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress - refusal to obey the laws of the mother country.
1775 - War of Independence; convening of the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia - creation of an army (D. Washington).
07/04/1776 - adoption of the “Declaration of Independence” (Thomas Jefferson); US education.
France, Spain and Russia were interested in weakening England, so they provided assistance to the United States.
1782 - end of the war; September 3, 1763 a truce was signed in Paris; England recognized the independence of the United States.
1787 - adoption by the Constituent Convention (parliament: 55 representatives from 13 states) of the US Constitution, which did not abolish slavery; The USA is a presidential republic; Presidential term of office is 4 years; Congress (parliament) consists of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house).
1789 - I President - D. Washington
Germany
Until the 16th century An international trade route passed through Germany, which lost its importance due to the movement of sea trade routes to the Atlantic Ocean. The country ranked first in the world in copper production.
Feudal fragmentation (more than 300 principalities). 1618-48 - The Thirty Years' War divided Europe into 2 blocs: I - the union of Austria, Spain and the German Catholic principalities.
II - the union of France, Denmark, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities.
Germany is an “empire without subjects”, “an empire without power”. “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” until 1806.
In the II half. XVI century France, Sweden and Turkey were hostile to Germany.
1663 - for the first time in history, the German principalities created a national liberation army to resist Turkey.
Austria- Habsburg dynasty; capital - Vienna.
Prussia- formed in 1701 on the site of the Principality of Brandenburg; Frederick I; capital - Berlin; V late XVIII V. - 3rd country in Europe by territory, 4th by army size under Frederick II (1740-86) - absolutist monarchy
Asian countries
India
1525-26 - conquest of the Delhi Sultanate (Lodi dynasty) by Babur (in the battle of Panipat, Babur’s 12 thousand army defeated the 100 thousand army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi); the Mughal (Baburid) empire lasted 332 years; Babur reigned for 3 years
1530 - death of Babur; ruler of India, Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar son of Babur - Humayun
1540-54 - on the Indian throne Sherkhan Sur - leader of the Afghan tribes
1555 - Humayun regained the Indian throne
1556-1605 - reign of Akbarshah (“Great Akbar”); streamlined the tax system, expanded the irrigation system, established internal and external trade; divided the state into 15 provinces; expanded the borders in 1559 defeated the Sur dynasty; achieved prosperity
1627-58 - reign of Shah Jahan; intensifying struggle for the throne
1658-1707 - reign of Aurangzeb; maximum limits; peak of power; persecution of representatives of non-Islamic religions; struggle for national independence (Sikhs and Marathas (Shivozhi)); the beginning of the decline of the state
1666-72 revolt against the Baburids; suppressed by Aurangzeb
1709 - an uprising in the province of Kandahar under the leadership of the head of the Afghan Ghilzai tribe, Mir-Weiskhan; Kandahar branch
1757 - the capture of Bengal by England (the French were ousted); the beginning of the colonization of India; East India Campaign activities
Culture: under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra and the Jami Mosque were built; flourishing of painting and miniatures
China
XVI century - political fragmentation of the Ming state; economic decline
1618 - the ruler of Manchuria Nurhatsi began a campaign against China
1636 - Nurkhatsi's heir, Abahai, declared himself emperor; Qing Dynasty (pure, transparent) until 1912
1643 - capture of Beijing by rebels; Li Tzu-cheng - Emperor Zhang Hsien-chong created an independent state in southwest China
1644 - the imperial army (Wu San-gua) agrees to become a vassal of Manchuria; end of the Ming Dynasty; defeat of Li Tzu-cheng and Zhang San-chung
1637 - capture of Korea
1689 - Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia (China seized the left bank of the Amur)
1757 - a decree on conducting foreign trade only under the control of the state through the port of Guangzhou (closing the country, an attempt to protect against enslavement by European countries)
1758 - conquest of the Dzungar (Oirat) Khanate; later all of Mongolia and Kashgar
II sex. XVII century - Burma and Vietnam are vassals. China
1792 - Nepal is a vassal of China
In its policy of conquest, China relied on the help of Western European countries. But since 1757 all ports except Guangzhou were closed to Europeans
Japan
In the beginning. XVI.c. Japan broke up into a number of small states
1543 - Portuguese merchant Mendis Pinto brought firearms to Japan; spread of Christianity.
1552 - the appearance of the Spaniards, Dutch and English
1573 - Oda Nobunaga united half the provinces, overthrowing the Aksikaga shogun; carried out reforms to promote economic development
1582 - assassination of Oda Nobunaga; ruler Toyotomi Hidayoshi; founded Osaka
1587 - expulsion of Catholic missionaries, leaving only Portuguese merchants
1592 - unsuccessful attack on Korea
1598 - death of Toyotomi Hidayoshi; shogun - Tokugawa Iayasu; built in Edo (modern Tokyo)
1603 - 1867 - reign of the III dynasty of shoguns - Tokugawa; completed the unification of the country
1614 - prohibition of Christianity; policy of economic self-isolation in order to protect against colonization by European countries
1636 - the last to be expelled were the Portuguese (more than 200 years of isolation)
1716-45 - reign of Yoshimune Tokugawa; encouraged the development of new lands, introduced a “100-point decree” regulating the life of the country; the beginning of the formation of capitalist relations
Ottoman Empire
Administrative structure: the empire consisted of provinces ruled by wali, the provinces were divided into sanjaks ruled by sanjakbeys
Military-feudal system of land tenure: Zeamet - large land grant, owner - loan (bey)
Timar - small land grant, owner - timariot (sipah)
Continuation of the aggressive policy:
1514 - Selim I defeated Iranian army Ismaila Safevi
1516 - capture of Syria and Palestine
1517 - capture of Cairo (Egypt) Ottoman possessions extended on 3 continents: Asia, Europe, Africa
1579 - peasant uprising led by Sheikh Jalal; Since then, all the rebels were called “Jalalists”, and the uprisings themselves were called “Jalalism”
1526 - uprising led by Qalandar
1610 - “Firman of Justice” - the return to peasants of lands abandoned during the famine for a small fee
The ruin of the peasants led to the decline of agriculture in the country. The crisis of the military-feudal system of land tenure led to the decline of the military power of the Ottomans. The Empire opens markets for European states - France, England
Russian-Turkish wars: 1768-74, 1787-91
Ser. XVIII century - “Westernization” movement - development of social, cultural and spiritual life firman - special decree of Sultan Ozin - non-Muslim
Iran
In con. XV century Iran is divided into several territories that do not obey central government. Political fragmentation.
1500-01 Ismal I Safevi conquered a number of territories and in 1502. declared himself Shahinshah (1502-24). Safavid State. Territory: Iran, Azerbaijan, part of Armenia, Afghanistan, part of Iraq, etc. Capital - Tabriz (Azerbaijan). Replaced suyurgal with tiyulni.
1587-1629 - the reign of Shah Abbas I is the pinnacle of development. Transfer of the capital to Isfahan (Iran). Tax reform. Modernization of the army with the help of English specialists (guns and firearms).
1602 - victory in the war with Turkey
Expulsion of the Portuguese from the island. Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. The East India Campaign received preferential treatment in trade with Iran.
The Safavid period is the “golden age” of Iranian art
Beginning XVIII century - economic crisis caused by a decrease in government. lands and taxes on them.
1709 - Kandahar branch
1710 - Sultan Hussein decree not to leave the land for the peasants
1722 - Mir-Mahmud, at the head of the Afghan army, captured the capital; period of the Afghan conquest; Safavids formally power
1730 - commander Tahmasp II (the last Safavid Shah) Nadir (from the Turkmen Afshar tribe) liberated Iran from the Afghans
1736 - overthrow of the Safavids; Nadir - Shah of Iran
1747 - assassination of Nadir Shah as a result of civil strife; collapse of the state; in Iran, the struggle between the Zend and Qajar tribes
1758 - victory of the Zend tribe; Kerim Khan Zend (1758-79)
1796 - power is in the hands of the Qajars; Agha-Mhammed - founder of the Qajar dynasty (lasted until 1925; 129 years)
II stage (I floor. - 60s gg. XIXV.)
1847 - economic crisis in European countries
Great Britain - the first industrialized country in the world; “mistress of the seas”, “industrial workshop of the world”
During this period, the industrial revolution ended.
1825 - first in the world Railway(in 1830 the world's railway length was 195 km, of which in Great Britain - 91 km) the world's first economic crisis
40s of the XIX century. - application in agricultural machines and chemicals. fertilizers
1825 - a law prohibiting strikes
1832 - the first parliamentary reform that expanded the rights of the bourgeoisie;
the new parliament established an 8-hour working day for children under 13 years of age and banned the work of children under 9 years of age
1837-1900 - reign of Queen Victoria (63 years); "age of Victoria"
1867 - the second parliamentary reform granted the right to vote to all men over 21 who own a house
Colonial policy: capture of Gibraltar (exit from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Sea), Aden (from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean),
Cape Town (Cape of Good Hope in South Africa), Singapore (Indian Threshold), Hong Kong (Chinese Threshold)
Basic principle: “Divide and conquer!”; 1857 - beginning of the conquest of India (Bengal)
“White” colonies (populated by immigrants from Europe): Canada (dominion since 1867), Australia, New Zealand
France
1804 - Napoleon - Emperor of France; I Empire (1804-14)
1805 - the beginning of wars of conquest:
1805 - capture of Vienna - the capital of Austria
1805 - Battle of Trafalgar: destruction of the French and Spanish fleets by the British;
economic (continental) blockade of England
2.12.1806 - the battle of Austerlitz - the defeat of the Austro-Russian army; end of the "Holy Roman Empire"
1806 - capture of Berlin - the capital of Prussia
1812 - invasion of Russia: 09/07/1812 - battle of Borodino(the Russian army retreated, surrendering Moscow (Kutuzov));
Napoleon's army collapsed; the beginning of the collapse of the Empire
con. 1812 - Napoleon's attempt to create new army; anti-Napoleonic coalition: Russia, England, Prussia, Austria
1813 - Battle of Leipzig - the coalition army defeated the French.
1814 - capture of Paris by the coalition army; end of the Empire; Napoleon was exiled to the island. Elbe;
1814 - Bourbon restoration (Louis XVIII); adoption of the Constitution; demand of the nobles to return the old order
1815 - seizure of power by Napoleon (100 days)
06/18/1815 - Battle of Waterloo: defeat of the French by the armies of Prussia and Russia
10.1814-06.1815 - Congress of Vienna (Russia, Austria, England, Prussia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France)
Decisions: France returns to the borders of 1789; reparations 700 million francs
England gets o. Malta and former colonies of Holland - about. Ceylon, Cape Colony in southern Africa;
Russia - most Poland;
Germany united into the German Confederation (instead of 200 there are now 39), led by Austria;
The Rhine region, Westphalia and western Poland were annexed to Prussia; Austria strengthened itself in Eastern Italy;
Belgium was annexed to Holland;
Switzerland regained its independence and declared itself a forever neutral state;
The monarchy was restored in Spain
Creation of the "Holy Alliance" by Austria, Russia and Prussia to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe
March 1815 - return of power to Louis XVIII; persecution of Napoleon supporters
July 1830 - dissolution of parliament; restriction of voting rights; uprising in Paris; escape of King Charles X; Louis Philippe on the throne
Orleans - July Monarchy; adoption of a new constitution that declared freedom of speech, press and assembly, lowered the age and property qualifications for voters, and provided for an increased role of parliament
1830 - capture of Algeria
1831 - suppression of the uprising of weavers in Lyon demanding higher wages
1834 - suppression of the II uprising of weavers in Lyon, who demanded the establishment of a republic and expansion of voting rights
1845 and 1847 - drought
1847 - economic crisis in Europe
02/23/1848 - the beginning of the revolution in France
02/25/1848 - declaration of France as a presidential republic; The Constitution of the Second Republic proclaimed freedom of speech and strikes, established a 10-11 hour working day; a decree was issued to provide workers with work; organization of “National Workshops” for the unemployed
December 1848 - election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) as president
1851 - coup d'etat organized by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
2.12.1852 -establishment of the Second Empire in France; Emperor Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Germany
Medieval feudal-absolutist orders became the main cause of the revolutionary situation. The moderate bourgeoisie led the revolution and demanded a constitutional monarchy. Driving force there were the petty and middle bourgeoisie, workers, advanced intelligentsia
1848 - adoption of the Constitution in Prussia; the revolutionary struggle that engulfed the scattered German states did not produce results
Fichte - ideologist of German unification
1866 - formation of the North German Confederation led by Prussia (22 states);
President of the Union - King of Prussia, Bundeschancellor - Otto von Bismarck (developed the Constitution of the Union)
1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War; Prussian victory
1871 - unification of Germany around Prussia; Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany
Italy
1848-49 - Republic in Rome; suppressed by the French army
Giuseppe Mazzini - leader of the Roman Republicans, created the organization "Young Italy"
Lombardy and Venice were part of Austria-Hungary, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were under Habsburg rule
The process of unification of Italy took place around the Sardinian kingdom as the strongest among the Italian states.
Camillo Benso Cavour - Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a supporter of moderate reforms and a constitutional monarchy.
Convinced France to help Sardinia in the fight against Austria-Hungary (1859)
1860 - Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Palermo (Sicily) and Naples
1861 - proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy; King Victor Emanuel II; a constitutional monarchy
1866 -annexation of Venice; 1870 - Rome
Austria-Hungary formed in 1867
Switzerland
By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Switzerland is a Union of Independent States (confederation), consisting of 22 canton states. Revolution of 1848 was reflected in the Constitution, which strengthened the central government
1863 - establishment of the Committee for International Assistance to the Wounded
1864 - signing of the international Convention on the establishment of the Red Cross Society
1865 -after the signing of the agreement on the formation of the International Telegraph Union in Paris, a
International Telegraph Bureau
Russia
1796-1800 - reign of Paul I
40s - 90s XIX century - industrial Revolution
1801-25 - reign of Alexander I; establishment of a police regime in the country (“Arakcheevism”)
1816 - creation of a revolutionary circle of officer youth “Union of Salvation”, transformed in 1818 into the “Union of Welfare”
1821-22 - dissolution of the “Union of Welfare”; creation of the Southern (Ukraine; director P.I. Pestel) and Northern (St. Petersburg; director N.M. Muravyov) societies;
developed draft constitutions: Pestel - proclamation of the republic (“Russian Truth”)
Muravyov - constitutional monarchy, 2-chamber People's Assembly
12/14/1825 - Decembrist uprising (military coup) on Senate Square on the day of the coronation of Nicholas I; depressed
1825-55 - reign of Nicholas I (“gendarme of Europe”); increased reaction; censorship creation of the Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery to fight the revolutionary movement (A.H. Benckendorff)
1828-29 - Russian-Turkish war
20s - 30s. XIX century - activities of revolutionary circles: “Literary Society of the 11th number” of Belinsky, the circle of Herzen and Ogarev
40s XIX century - Slavophiles - saw special way development of Russia in the development of peasant communities (Khomyakov, Aksakov brothers), Westerners - constitutional system (Granovsky, Panaev, Botkin)
1845 - “Petrashevites” (M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky) - utopian socialists
02/19/1861 - Alexander I signed a decree abolishing serfdom. The decree declared the peasants free,
The land was purchased for a ransom in installments over 49 years. “segment” - excess land above the norm
Military (1862), education (1863), zemstvo and judicial (1864), city (1870) reforms were carried out
Foreign policy: 1801 - acceptance of Eastern Georgia into Russian citizenship; 1804-13 - war with Iran for the Caucasus (Peace of Gulistan); 1806. - Russian-Turkish war (conquest of Bessarabia); 1828. - entry of Eastern Armenia and Northern Azerbaijan; 1834-59 = Shamil’s struggle for the independence of Dagestan, Chechnya and Adygea;
1864 - subjugation of the entire Caucasus; 1839 - attack on the Khiva Khanate (Perovsky); 1855 - Kurile Islands;
1853-56 - Russia lost to Turkey in the Crimean War (prohibition of maintaining a military fleet on the Black Sea and at the mouth of the Danube, transfer part of Bessarabia to Romania) America
1812-14 - war of England against the USA; capture of the capital
Purchase of Louisiana from France in 1822. - Spain had Florida, during the war with Mexico - part of its territory
30s XIX century - the beginning of the industrial revolution
The American way of agricultural development is farming. Types of management: in the north - using machines and chemicals. fertilizers
in the south - plantations using slaves
Abolitionists - supporters of the abolition of slavery
Con. 50s XIX century - John Brown's Virginia Rebellion
US political parties: Republicans (1854; supporters of the abolition of slavery; A. Lincoln) and Democrats (1828; supporters of slavery)
1860 - Lincoln - president; demanded the gradual abolition of slavery
02.1861 - 6 southern states announced the creation of the Southern Confederacy (capital Richmond)
1861-65 - Civil War in the USA (North - South); victory of the North
01/01/1863 - decree abolishing slavery
1865 - assassination of Lincoln
law on homesteads - plots allocated free of charge to slaves
1866 - amendments to the Constitution on equal civil and political rights of blacks and whites
1867 - Purchase of Alaska from Russia
Foreign policy is based on the “Monroe Doctrine” - “America for the Americans” (appropriation of the wealth of South America and exclusion of Europeans)
Latin America
Haiti- the island was discovered by Columbus and belonged to France; in 1804 - as a result of the uprising (Toussaint Louverture) proclaimed
First Republic in Latin America
Mexico- 1810-11 - revolt against the Spanish colonialists (Miguel Hidalgo);
Jose Maria Morelos continued to fight until 1815
The struggle was supported by the landowners
1821(28) Mexican independence; abolition of slavery
Venezuela- 1819 - gaining independence (Simon Bolivar turned to European countries for help;
I President; dreamed of a confederation of countries liberated from Spanish rule); providing assistance to the rebels of New Granada; unification of Venezuela and New Granada - New (Greater) Colombia
1830 - Simon Bolivar removed from the post of President
Argentina- 1810 - Argentine independence (General José San Martin)
1826 - proclamation of the Republic
Chile- Argentine rebels crossed the Andes and assisted the Chilean rebels; 1817 - declaration of independence
Peru- 1820 - troops of San Mrtin (Argentina) crossed by sea to Peru
1821 - capture of the capital Lima; declaration of independence
Ecuador- 1822
Bolivia- 1823-24 - Bolivar's army (Venezuela) provided assistance to the rebels of Upper Peru.
1825 - Republic of Bolivia (in honor of Bolivar)
Uruguay- 1830
Cuba- 1869 - 78 - struggle for independence
Brazil- the only Portuguese colony South America; in 1822 gained independence; monarchy did not abolish slavery
By 1830, Latin America was freed from the colonialists, and Republics were proclaimed in all countries except Brazil.
India
The British government established a “Council for the Supervision of Indian Affairs”, which determined the colonial policy of the kingdom.
The Governor of the East India Campaign in Calcutta was appointed by the Governor General of India.
Sepoys - a mercenary army from the local population led by the British
1843 - The East Indian Campaign subjugated the Sindh region. India
1857-59 - sepoy uprising; started in Bengal; the reason was the introduction of rifles with a rifled barrel (shells for them were wrapped in paper, greased with pork or cow fat); brutally suppressed, the rebels forced Baburid Bahadur Shah II (the last of the Baburids) to sign an appeal to the people to unite, Princess Lakshmi Bai proclaimed the independence of her principality of Jhansi Tanti.........
Modern times are a period in human history between the Middle Ages and Modern times. The concept of “new history” appeared in European historical and philosophical thought during the Renaissance as an element of the three-part division of history proposed by humanists into ancient, middle and modern history. The criterion for determining the “new time”, its “novelty” in comparison with the previous era, was, from the point of view of humanists, the flourishing of secular science and culture during the Renaissance, that is, not socio-economic, but cultural-spiritual. However, this period is quite contradictory in its content. The High Renaissance, Reformation and humanism coexisted with a massive surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, a phenomenon called “witch hunt” in literature.
The concept of “new time” was accepted by historians and established in scientific usage, but its meaning largely remains conditional - not all nations entered this period at the same time. One thing is certain: in this period of time, a new civilization is emerging, a new system of relations, a Eurocentric world, a “European miracle” and the expansion of European civilization to other areas of the world.
According to some sources, the starting point is considered to be the beginning of the English Revolution in 1640. Other events that are taken as the starting point of modern times include those associated with the Reformation (1517), the Spanish discovery of the New World (1492), the fall of Constantinople (1453), or even the beginning of the French Revolution (1789).
It is even more difficult to determine the end date of the New Time. In Soviet historiography, the point of view reigned supreme according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when the socialist revolution took place in Russia. According to the modern point of view, consideration of events associated with the New Age should be completed with the First World War (1914 - 1918).
In modern times, there are 2 stages, the border of which is the Napoleonic Wars - from the Great French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna.
Changes in the New Time
The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the growing importance of centralized government controlled. Vivid examples This growth is served by the completion of feudal civil strife - such as the War of the White and Scarlet Roses in England, the unification of the regions - Aragon and Castile in Spain. [Policy]
The most significant cultural and scientific changes in modern times are called the Great Geographical Discoveries. In a very short period (late 15th - early 16th century), European sailors circumnavigated Africa, paved the sea route to India, discovered a new continent - America and circumnavigated the world. A compass was invented and a caravel was built, with which the entire era of the VGO is associated. Not only did Europeans' ideas about the Earth collapse, but the place of the Earth itself was revised. Copernicus’s book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” was published, in which he abandoned the world order proposed by Ptolemy.
Technical changes. An important achievement of modern times was typography.
Johannes Gutenberg is considered the inventor in 1440. Mining and metallurgy developed. The cheese furnace was replaced by the stukofen (the ancestor of the blast furnace). Also, with the advent of the New Age, handicraft production was replaced by the manufacturing type. Labor remained manual, but division of labor appeared, which significantly increased its productivity. The workers worked for the owner of the manufactory.
Main events of modern times
Peace of Westphalia(1648)
English Revolution (1640 – 1689)
American War of Independence (1775 – 1783)
French Revolution (1789 – 1794)
Russian-Turkish War (1787-1792)
Russian-Swedish War (1788-1790)
Napoleonic Wars (1800 – 1815)
Greek Revolution (1821 – 1832)
Decembrist uprising (1825)
Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829)
July Revolution (1830)
First Opium War (1840 - 1842)
Revolutions (1848-1849)
Crimean War(1853 – 1856)
Second Opium War (1856 - 1860)
American Civil War (1861 - 1865)