Municipal state educational institution

"Rusyatinsky basic comprehensive school"

COMPLETED: student in grade 4

Ufimtseva Daria

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Rusyatino, 2017

World War I

July 28th 1914 - 11th of November 1918

The First World War, in short, is one of the most widespread, most bloody armed conflicts in the history of mankind.

Reasons for the military conflict
  To understand the causes of the First World War, you need to consider the alignment of forces in Europe. Three major world powers - the Russian Empire, Great Britain and England - by the 19th century had already divided the spheres of influence. Until a certain point, Germany did not strive for a dominant position in Europe; it was more concerned about its economic growth.
  But everything changed at the end of the 19th century. Having strengthened economically and militarily, Germany began to urgently need a new living space for a growing population and markets for its goods. We needed colonies that Germany did not have. To achieve this, it was necessary to begin a new redivision of the world by defeating the allied bloc of the three powers - Britain, Russia and France.
  By the end of the 19th century, Germany’s aggressive plans became finally clear to its neighbors. In response to the German threat, an Entente alliance was created, consisting of Russia, France and England, which joined them.

In addition to the desire of Germany to conquer living space and colonies, there were other reasons for the First World War. This question is so complicated that there is still no common point of view on this issue. Each of the main countries participating in the conflict puts forward its own reasons.

World War I, in short, began because of irreconcilable contradictions between the countries of the Entente and the Central Union, primarily between Great Britain and Germany. Other states had their claims to each other.

Main participants

The war was fought between the two largest political blocs at that time - the Entente and the Central Bloc (formerly the Triple Alliance). AT Entente   included Russian Empire, England and France. The central block consisted of the following countries: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy. The latter later joined the Entente, and the Triple Alliance included Bulgaria and Turkey.
Total in the First World War 38 states participated .

Reason for war

The outbreak of the military conflict was connected with the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. The killer was a member of the Yugoslav revolutionary youth organization.

The beginning of the war 1914

This event was enough for Austria-Hungary to start a war with Serbia. In early July, the Austrian authorities announced that Serbia was behind the murder of the Archduke and put forward an ultimatum that could not be fulfilled. Serbia, however, agrees to all of its conditions, except one. Germany, for which war was urgently needed, persistently pushed Austria-Hungary to declare war. At this time, all three countries are mobilizing.
July 28th   Austria-Hungary announces that Serbia has not fulfilled the ultimatum conditions, begins shelling the capital and introduces troops into its territory. Nicholas II calls in a telegram by William I for a peaceful resolution of the situation through the Hague Conference. The German authorities are silent in response.
July 31   Germany already announces an ultimatum to Russia and demands to stop mobilization, and August 1   comes the official declaration of war.
  I must say that not one of the participants in these events assumed that the war, which they planned to end in a few months, would drag on for more than 4 years.

Course of war

It is easier and more convenient to divide the course of the war into five periods, according to the years during which it went.
1914 year   - hostilities unfolded on the Western (France) and Eastern (Prussia, Russia) fronts, the Balkans and the colonies (Oceania, Africa and China). Germany quickly captured Belgium and Luxembourg, and launched an attack on France. Russia led a successful offensive in Prussia. In general, in 1914, none of the countries was able to fully implement their plans.
1915 year   - fierce fighting took place on the Western Front, where France and Germany desperately sought to turn the tide in their favor. For the Russian troops on the Eastern Front, the situation has changed for the worse. Due to supply problems, the army began to retreat, losing Galicia and Poland.
1916 year - during this period, the most bloody battle took place on the Western Front - Verdun, During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, killed up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany. Verdun battle is also known for the first time that a new type of weapon was used - a flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. Russia, in an effort to help the allies and draw back the forces of the German army over itself, made a successful attempt at a counteroffensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the allies.

In the spring of 1916, one of the main battles of the First World War at sea, Jutland, took place. In general, at the end of the year, the Entente bloc became dominant. The Fourth Peace Alliance proposal was rejected.
1917 year   - the success of the Entente troops. The United States joins them. As a result of revolutionary events, Russia is actually emerging from the war.
1918 year   - the conclusion by Russia on extremely unfavorable and difficult conditions of peace with Germany. The remaining allies of Germany make peace with the Entente countries. Germany remains alone and in November 1918 agrees to surrender. 1918 brought the Entente major victories, which led to the end of the First World War.

After Russia actually emerged from the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, Russia. The terms of the Brest Peace Treaty concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918 turned out to be difficult for the country, but soon this agreement was canceled.

Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and partially Belarus, after which she threw all her forces to the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany was on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signed the act of surrender.

The results of the war of 1918

Before World War II, this military conflict was the most widespread, affecting almost the entire globe. The shocking number of victims (given the loss of death among the military and civilians, as well as the wounded) is about 80 million people. During the 5 years of the war, empires such as the Ottoman, Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian ones collapsed.

According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to difficult living conditions, epidemics and hunger, twice as many people died.

According to the results of the First World War, Germany was supposed to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. She lost 1/8 of her territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The Rhine coast is occupied by the Allied forces for 15 years. Also, Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people. All weapons were subject to severe restrictions.

But, the Consequences of the First World War affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was in a difficult condition. The standard of living of the population fell sharply, the national economy fell into decay. At the same time, military monopolies have enriched themselves. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which greatly influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

flamethrower tank

The joint efforts of the United States and Britain project three-ton truck "Liberty"

heavy tank Mk VIII "Liberty" aka "International"

Four-wheel drive truck Militor 4? 4 Half-track called Marienvagen

did the English "Handley Page" V / 1500 - three with

half a ton of bombs, flight range two thousand km.

Entente countries at the beginning of the war were victims of aggression. The reason for the Austrian attack on Serbia was the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand. The crime was committed by G. Principle, a member of the Serbian nationalist organization, in June 1914 in Sarajevo, the center of Bosnia captured by Austria-Hungary. Russia could not leave Serbia in trouble for its ally and thereby completely lose its already not very strong position on the Balkan Peninsula. The mobilization of the Russian army led to the fact that the ally of Austria-Hungary Germany August 1, 1914 announced Of Russia the war.

Beginning under the slogan of the protection of Slavic Orthodox brothers, and even called the Second World War, the war caused a patriotic upsurge in the Russian Empire. Later, however, it became clear that the tsarist government, like other participants in the war, pursued selfish goals. Russia was attracted by the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, control of which meant a guaranteed exit to the Mediterranean and the strengthening of influence in the Balkans. In court circles, even the idea of \u200b\u200brebuilding the Greek Empire with the capital in Constantinople (Istanbul) led by one of the Russian Grand Dukes arose.

The arrest of the killer of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand G. Principle. 1914

August 3rd Germany declared war on France. German troops rushed to the French borders through the territory of neutral Belgium. This flagrant violation of international law gave rise to a third Entente member - Britain - to declare war on Germany.

European conflict quickly turned into the warthat swept the whole world. It was conducted on a dozen fronts in different parts of the world. In addition to the Ottoman Empire, the German bloc managed to bring to its side Bulgaria, a longtime rival of Serbia, which was defeated in the Second Balkan War. The Germans promised to reward Bulgaria at the expense of the territories of Serbia, Greece and Romania.

In August 1914, the Entente acquired an ally in the Far East - Japan, which sought to oust Germany from China and from the islands of Oceania. The real bargaining unfolded for the entry into the war of Italy. Since 1882, this country was a member of the Triple Alliance, but Entente diplomats managed to convince its rulers to oppose the Central Powers in 1915.   Material from the site

The world character of the war manifested itself even more after joining the Entente in April 1917, the United States of America, followed by a string of Latin American states dependent on them. By 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, and even such exotic countries as Liberia and Siam (Thailand) became allies of the Entente. 38 states were involved in the war, although most of them did not directly participate in hostilities.

First World War 1914-1918, the imperialist war between two coalitions of capitalist powers over the redivision of the already divided world, the redivision of colonies, spheres of influence and capital application, the enslavement of other peoples. First, the war swept 8 European states: Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro - on the other. Later, most countries of the world were involved in it. In total, 4 states participated in the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc, 34 states on the side of the Entente (including 4 British dominions and the colony of India, which signed the Treaty of Versailles 1919). The nature of the war was aggressive and unjust on both sides; only in Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro did it include elements of a national liberation war. The imperialists of all countries participated in the outbreak of the war, but the main culprit of it was the bourgeoisie of Germany, which began P.M. in "... the most convenient, from her point of view, moment for the war, using its latest improvements in military equipment and preventing new weapons already outlined and predetermined by Russia and France" (Lenin V.I., Poln. sobr. soch. 5th ed., Vol. 26, p. 16).

The participating countries of the 1st World War 1914-18 (all dates are in the new style)

Dates of entry into the war of the Entente and its allies		Dates of entry into the war of Germany and its allies
Serbia 28.7		Austria-Hungary 28.7
Russia 1.8	Panama 7.4	Germany 1.8
France 3.8		Turkey 29.10
Belgium 4.8	Greece 29.6
Great Britain with dominions (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa) and India - 4.8		Bulgaria 14.10
Montenegro 5.8	Liberia 4.8	Surrender dates Germany and its allies
Japan 23.8		Bulgaria 9/29/1918
Egypt 12/18	Brazil 26.10	Turkey 10/30/1918
		Austria-Hungary 11/3/1918
Italy 23.5	Guatemala 30.4	Germany 11/11/1918
	Nicaragua 8.5	Neutral states in the territory of which hostilities were fought
Portugal 9.3	Costa Rica 23.5	Luxembourg
Romania 27.8
	Honduras 19.7
States that have severed diplomatic relations with Germany in 1917
Bolivia 13.4; Dominican Republic 11.6; Peru 5.10; Uruguay 7.10; Equador 9.12.

Reason for P. m. the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on June 15 (28), 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) served as Serbian nationalists (see Killing of sarajevo ). The German imperialists decided to use the opportunity to start a war. Under pressure from Germany, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia on July 10 (23) and, despite the consent of the Serbian government to fulfill almost all of its requirements, broke off diplomatic relations with it on July 12 (25), and declared war on it on July 15 (28). The capital of Serbia, Belgrade, was subjected to shelling. On July 16 (29), Russia began mobilization in the military districts bordering Austria-Hungary, and on July 17 (30) announced general mobilization. Germany on July 18 (31) demanded that Russia cease mobilization and, not receiving an answer, declared war on July 19 (August 1). July 21 (August 3) Germany declared war on France and Belgium; Great Britain declared war on Germany on July 22 (August 4), along with which its dominions entered the war - Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa and the largest colony of India. On August 10 (23), Japan declared war on Germany. Italy, formally remaining part of the Triple Alliance, on July 20 (August 2) 1914 declared its neutrality.

The reasons for the war.   At the turn of the 19-20 centuries. capitalism has grown into imperialism. The world turned out to be almost completely divided between the largest powers (see Colonies and colonial policies ). The unevenness of the economic and political development of countries has intensified. The states that later embarked on the path of capitalist development (USA, Germany, Japan) quickly moved forward and pressed the old capitalist countries — Great Britain and France — from the world markets, persistently seeking to redistribute the colonies. The most acute contradictions arose between Germany and Great Britain, whose interests clashed in many parts of the globe, but especially in Africa, East Asia and the Middle East, where German imperialism mainly directed its trade and colonial expansion. A major concern in the British ruling circles was the construction Baghdad Railway, which opened Germany a direct path through the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf and provided it with important positions in the Middle East, which jeopardized Britain’s sea and land communications with Great Britain. The contradictions between Germany and France were deep. Their sources were the desire of the German capitalists to permanently secure Alsace and Lorraine, taken from France as a result of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, and the determination of the French to return these areas. The interests of France and Germany clashed in the colonial issue. French attempts to seize Morocco met with decisive opposition from Germany, which also claimed this territory. Since the end of the 19th century Russian-German contradictions grew. The expansion of German imperialism in the Middle East, its attempts to establish control over Turkey affected the economic, political and military-strategic interests of Russia. In its customs policy, Germany sought to limit the import of grain from Russia by means of high duties and at the same time ensure free penetration of German industrial goods into the Russian market. Deep contradictions existed between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. Their main reason was the expansion of the Habsburg monarchy, supported by Germany, to neighboring South Slavic lands - Bosnia, Herzegovina and Serbia with the aim of establishing dominance in the Balkans. Russia, supporting the struggle of the peoples of the Balkan countries for freedom and national independence, regarded the Balkans as its sphere of influence. Tsarism and the Russian imperialist bourgeoisie sought to capture the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in order to consolidate their positions in the Balkans. Many contentious issues existed between Great Britain and France, Great Britain and Russia, Austria-Hungary and Italy, Turkey and Italy, but all of them receded into the background before the main contradictions: between Germany and its rivals - Great Britain, France, Russia. The aggravation and deepening of these contradictions pushed the imperialists to redistribute the world, and he "... could not, on the basis of capitalism, happen otherwise than at the cost of a world war" (Lenin V. I., ibid., Vol. 34, p. 370) .

In the 1910s the class struggle and the national liberation movement increased. The Revolution of 1905-07 in Russia had a huge impact on the upsurge of the struggle of the working masses for their social and national liberation. In Germany, France, Great Britain there was a significant increase in the labor movement. The class struggle reached the highest level in Russia, where a new revolutionary upsurge began in 1910, and an acute political crisis was brewing. The national liberation movement in Alsace expanded (see The tsabern incident 1913 ),   Ireland, as well as the struggle of the enslaved peoples of Austria-Hungary. The imperialists sought by way of war to suppress the developing liberation movement of the working class and oppressed peoples within their countries, to delay the world revolutionary process.

The imperialists have been preparing the World War II as a means of resolving external and internal contradictions for many years. Its initial stage was the creation of a system of military-political blocs. I started this austro-German Treaty of 1879,   whose participants pledged to help each other in the event of a war with Russia. In 1882, Italy joined them, seeking support in the struggle against France for the possession of Tunisia. So in the center of Europe arose Triple Alliance 1882,   or an alliance of the Central Powers directed against Russia and France, and later against Great Britain. In contrast, another coalition of European powers began to take shape. Formed russian-French Union   1891-93, which provided for the joint actions of these countries in the event of aggression by Germany or the aggression of Italy and Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany. The growth of economic power in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. made Britain gradually abandon traditional politics "Brilliant isolation"   and seek rapprochement with France and Russia. The British-French agreement of 1904 settled disputes between Great Britain and France on colonial issues, and the English-Russian agreement of 1907 secured an agreement between Russia and Great Britain regarding their policies in Tibet, Afghanistan, and Iran. These documents formalized the creation of the Triple Agreement, or Entente,- bloc of Great Britain, France and Russia, opposing the Triple Alliance. In 1912, the Anglo-French and Franco-Russian maritime conventions were signed, in 1913 negotiations began on the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian maritime convention.

The creation of military-political groups in Europe and the arms race further aggravated imperialist contradictions and intensified tensions in international relations. The relatively calm streak of world history gave way to "... more impetuous, spasmodic, catastrophic, conflict ..." (ibid., Vol. 27, p. 94). The aggravation of imperialist contradictions manifested itself in Moroccan crises   1905-06 and 1911, Bosnian crisis of 1908-09, italian-Turkish war 1911-12, Balkan Wars 1912-13.   A major international conflict was caused by Germany sending Turkey a military mission led by General O. Lyman von Sanders to reorganize and train the Turkish army (December 1913).

In preparation for the World War II, the ruling circles of the imperialist states created a powerful military industry, the basis of which was made up of large state-owned factories - weapons, powder, shell, cartridge, shipbuilding, etc. Private enterprises were involved in the production of military products: in Germany, Krupp factories, in Austria Hungary - Skoda, in France - Schneider-Creusot and Saint-Chamon, in the UK - Vickers and Armstrong-Witworth, in Russia - Putilovsky plant, etc.

The imperialists of both hostile coalitions energetically strengthened their armed forces. Achievements of science and technology were put at the service of the war. More sophisticated armaments appeared: magazine-based quick-firing rifles and machine guns, which greatly increased the infantry firepower; in artillery, the number of rifled guns of the latest systems increased sharply. Of great strategic importance was the development of railways, which made it possible to significantly accelerate the concentration and deployment of large military masses in theaters of operations and to ensure uninterrupted supply of the existing armies with human replenishment and all types of material and technical support. An increasingly important role began to play road transport. There was a military aircraft. The use of new means of communication in the military (telegraph, telephone, radio) facilitated the organization of command and control. The number of armies and trained stock increased rapidly (Table 1). In the field of naval armaments, stubborn rivalry between Germany and Great Britain took place. Since 1905, ships of a new type were built - Dreadnought. By 1914, the German fleet firmly took second place in the world after the British fleet. Other states also sought to strengthen their navy, but financial and economic opportunities did not allow them to implement the adopted shipbuilding programs (Table 2). The exorbitant arms race required enormous financial resources, which placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the working people.

The ideological preparation of the war has gained wide scope. Imperialists

Tab. 1. - The composition of the ground forces of the main belligerent powers

States

Ground Forces and Aviation

Population in 1914, million

The number of armies, million people. "

Casualties

Artillery (guns)

Aircraft

Tanks

peacetime

at the beginning of the war (after mobilization)

towards the end of the war

total mobilized for the war

in% of the population

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

United Kingdom

Total Entente Germany Austria-Hungary

Total Central Powers

1 For the UK and France, taking into account the colonial forces in theaters of operations.

Tab. 2. - The composition of the forces of the navies of the main belligerent powers 1

States

Ship classes

Line ships whether - "dreadnought"

Battleships - "pre-dreadnought"

Battlecruisers

Cruiser

Destroyers

Submarines

to the beginning of the war

Towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

to the beginning of the war

towards the end of the war

Russia.….. United Kingdom.... France....

Total Entente Germany... Austria-Hungary ....

Total Central Powers

1 Except obsolete ships.

3 Excluded from the existing fleet as obsolete.

they tried to instill in the peoples the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of armed clashes, in every possible way instilled militarism, incited chauvinism. For this, all means of propaganda were used: print, literature, art, church. The bourgeoisie of all countries, playing on the patriotic feelings of the peoples, justified the arms race, camouflaged predatory goals with false arguments about the need to protect the fatherland from external enemies.

The real force, capable of tying the hands of imperialist governments to a large extent, was the international working class, with more than 150 million people. The worldwide labor movement was led by International 2nd, which brought together 41 Social Democratic parties from 27 countries with 3.4 million members. But the opportunist leaders of the European Social Democratic parties did nothing to implement the anti-war decisions of the congresses of the 2nd International that took place before the war, and when it began, the leaders of the Western Social Democratic parties came out in support of their governments, voted in the parliament for the military loans. The socialist leaders of Great Britain (A. Henderson), France (J. Guesde, M. Samba, A. Tom) and Belgium (E. Vandervelde) even became part of the military bourgeois governments. The 2nd International suffered an ideological and political collapse; it ceased to exist, breaking up into separate social-chauvinist parties. Only the left wing of the 2nd International, at the forefront of which was the Bolshevik party led by V. I. Lenin, was a consistent fighter against militarism, chauvinism and war. The basic principles that determined the attitude of Marxist revolutionaries to war were set forth by Lenin in Manifesto of the Central Committee of the RSDLP "War and Russian Social Democracy".   The Bolsheviks resolutely opposed the war, explained to the masses its imperialist character. Bolshevik fraction of the 4th State Duma   refused to support the tsarist government and vote for military loans. The Bolshevik Party called on the working people of all countries to achieve the defeat of their governments in the war, the transformation of the imperialist war into a civil war, the revolutionary overthrow of the power of the bourgeoisie and landowners. The revolutionary anti-war positions were held by the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party (“Tesnyak”) led by D. Blagoev, G. Dimitrov and V. Kolarov, and the Serbian and Romanian Social Democratic parties. An imperialist war was also actively opposed by a small group of left-wing Social Democrats in Germany, headed by K. Liebknecht, R. Luxemburg, K. Zetkin, F. Mehring, some socialists in France, headed by J. Jaures, as well as several others. countries.

War plans and strategic deployment. The General Staffs developed plans for the war long before its occurrence. All strategic calculations focused on the short duration and transience of a future war. The German strategic plan called for swift and decisive action against France and Russia. It was supposed to defeat France within 6-8 weeks, after which it would attack Russia with all its might and end the war victoriously. The bulk of the troops (4/5) was deployed on the western border of Germany and was intended to invade France. They were tasked with delivering the main strike with the right wing through Belgium and Luxembourg, bypassing the left flank of the French army west of Paris and, dropping it to the German border, forcing it to capitulate. A cover (one army) was put up against Russia in East Prussia. The military command of Germany believed that it would have time to defeat France and transfer its troops to V. before the Russian army went on the offensive. The main forces of the German fleet (the so-called High Sea fleet) were supposed to be located in the bases of the North Sea and the actions of light forces and submarines weaken the British fleet, and then destroy its main forces in a general battle. Several cruisers were allocated for operations on naval communications of Great Britain. In the Baltic Sea, the task was to prevent the active actions of the Russian fleet.

The Austro-Hungarian command planned military operations on two fronts: in Galicia - against Russia and in the Balkans - against Serbia and Montenegro. The possibility of forming a front against Italy, which was an unreliable member of the Triple Alliance and could go over to the Entente, was not ruled out. This led to the compilation of three versions of the war plan and the division of the ground forces into three operational echelons (groups): group A (9 corps), which was intended for operations against Russia, the “minimum Balkan group” (3 corps) - against Serbia and Montenegro and the group “B” (4 corps), which was the reserve of the supreme command and could be used both to strengthen the first two groups, and to form a new front in the event of a speech by Italy. The General Headquarters of Austria-Hungary and Germany maintained close ties with each other, coordinating their strategic plans. The Austro-Hungarian war plan against Russia called for a major strike from Galicia between the Vistula and the Bug in S.-V. towards the German troops, which were to simultaneously develop an offensive from East Prussia to the south-east. to Siedlec for the purpose of encircling and defeating a group of Russian troops in Poland. The Austro-Hungarian fleet on the Adriatic Sea had the task of defending the coast.

The Russian General Staff developed two versions of the war plan, which were offensive in nature. Option "A" provided for the deployment of the main forces of the Russian army against Austria-Hungary, option "G" - against Germany if it would deal the main blow on the Eastern Front. Actually implemented option “A” planned concentric offensives in Galicia and East Prussia in order to defeat opposing enemy groups, and then a general offensive within Germany and Austria-Hungary. Two separate armies stood out to protect Petrograd and the South of Russia. A Caucasian army was also created in case Turkey entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. The Baltic Fleet was tasked with defending the sea approaches to Petrograd and preventing the German fleet from breaking into the Gulf of Finland. The Black Sea Fleet did not have an approved action plan.

The French plan of war against Germany ("plan number 17") provided for the transition to the offensive by the forces of the right wing of the armies in Lorraine and by forces of the left wing against Metz. The possibility of the invasion of German troops through Belgium was not initially taken into account, since the neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by great powers, including Germany. Only on August 2, the option for "plan number 17" was approved, which contained a clarification: in the event of the advance of German troops through Belgium, develop combat operations on the left wing to the turn of the river. Meuse from Namur to Zhive.

The French plan reflected the insecurity of the French command in the struggle against a stronger Germany and actually made the actions of the French army dependent on the actions of German troops. The fleet in the Mediterranean was supposed to ensure the transportation of colonial troops from North Africa to France, blocking the Austro-Hungarian fleet on the Adriatic; part of the forces of the French fleet was allocated for the defense of the approaches to the English Channel.

Great Britain, counting on the fact that military operations on land will be waged by the armies of its allies - Russia and France, did not plan ground operations. She undertook only to send an expeditionary force to the continent to help the French. The fleet was given active tasks - to establish a distant blockade of Germany in the North Sea, to ensure the safety of sea lanes, to defeat the German fleet in a general battle.

In accordance with these plans, the strategic deployment of the armed forces took place. Germany pushed to the border with Belgium, Luxembourg and France at the front of 380 km   from Krefeld to Mühlhausen (Mulhouse) there are seven armies (1st – 7th; 86 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions; a total of about 1600 thousand people, up to 5 thousand guns). The main grouping of these forces (five armies) was located north of Metz at the front 160 km   The defense of the northern coast of Germany was assigned to the Northern Army (1 reserve corps and 4 landver brigades). The supreme commander in chief was Emperor Wilhelm II, the chief of staff was General H. Moltke, Jr. (from September 14, 1914 - E. Falkenhayn, from August 29, 1916 until the end of the war - Field Marshal P. Hindenburg). The French armies (1st - 5th; 76 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions; in total about 1,730 thousand people, over 4 thousand guns) deployed at the front to 345 km from Belfort to Irson under the command of General J. Joffre (from December 1916 - General R. Nivelles, from May 17, 1917 to the end of the war - General A. Peten; on May 14, 1918, Marshal F. Foch became supreme commander of the allied forces). The Belgian army (6 infantry and 1 cavalry division; a total of 117 thousand people, 312 guns) under the command of King Albert 1 took the line east of Brussels. The British Expeditionary Army (4 infantry and 1.5 cavalry divisions; a total of 87 thousand men, 328 guns) under the command of Field Marshal J. French (from December 1915 until the end of the war - General D. Haig) concentrated in the Maubeuge area, joining the left the flank of the French army. The main grouping of the Allied forces was located northwest of Verdun.

Germany put up the 8th army in East Prussia against Russia. (14.5 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions; in total more than 200 thousand people, 1,044 guns) under the command of General M. Pritwitz, in Silesia - the Landver Corps of General R. Wojrsch (2 Landver divisions and 72 guns). Austria-Hungary had 3 armies on the front from Chernivtsi to Sandomierz (1st, 3rd, 4th), on the right flank the army group of G. Köves von Köveshaz (from the 23rd of August - the 2nd Army) and in the Krakow region - Kummer's army group (35.5 infantry and 11 cavalry divisions; up to 850 thousand people, 1848 guns in total). The supreme commander was Archduke Frederick, from November 1916 - Emperor Charles 1; Chief of Staff - Field Marshal F. Konrad von Hötzendorf, from February 28, 1917 - General A. Arts.

Russia on its western border had 6 armies (52 infantry and 21 cavalry divisions; more than 1 million people in total, 3203 guns). Two fronts were formed: the North-Western (1st and 2nd armies) and the South-Western (3rd, 4th, 5th and 8th armies), the 6th army defended the coast of the Baltic Sea and covered Petrograd, and the 7th - the north-west coast of the Black Sea and the border with Romania. Secondary and Siberian divisions came to the front later - at the end of August - September. On July 20 (August 2), Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief (for a list of persons who held this position in the future, see Art. Supreme Commander ). The chiefs of staff of the supreme commander were: General N. N. Yanushkevich, General M. V. Alekseev. At the end of 1916 and in 1917, the interim chief of staff were General V.I. Romeyko-Gurko, V.N. Klembovsky, A.I. Denikin, A.S. Lukomsky, N.N.Dukhonin. From November 20 (December 3), 1917, the chiefs of staff were M.D. Bonch-Bruevich (until February 21, 1918), S.I. Kuleshin, and M.M. Zagyu.

In the Balkans, Austria-Hungary launched two armies against Serbia: the 5th and 6th (13 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions; a total of 140 thousand people, 546 guns) under the command of General O. Potiorek. Serbia put up four armies: the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th (11 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions; a total of 250 thousand people., 550 guns) under the command. Voivode R. Traveler; Montenegro - 6 infantry divisions (35 thousand people, 60 guns). The strategic deployment of the armed forces of the parties was basically completed by August 4-6 (17-19). Military operations took place in Europe, Asia and Africa, on all oceans and many seas. The main actions were carried out at five land theaters: West European (since 1914), East European (since 1914), Italian (since 1915), Balkan (since 1914) and the Middle East (since 1914). In addition, military operations were carried out on the territory of the German colonies in Africa (German East Africa - until the end of the war, German South-West Africa - until 1915, Togo - in 1914, Cameroon - until 1916), in East Asia (Qingdao - in 1914) and on the islands of the Pacific Ocean (Oceania). The main land theaters throughout the war were West European (French) and East European (Russian). Of the maritime theaters, the North, Mediterranean, Baltic, Black Seas, the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans played a particularly important role.

Campaign 1914.   The West European theater of operations began with the invasion of German troops in Luxembourg (August 2) and Belgium (August 4), which rejected the German ultimatum on the passage of German troops through its territory. The Belgian army, relying on the fortified areas of Liège and Namur, put up stubborn resistance to the enemy at the turn of the river. Maas. Leaving Liege after fierce fighting (August 16), she retreated to Antwerp. The German command, putting against it about 2 corps (80 thousand people, 300 guns), sent the main grouping of its armies in the southwest. to the Franco-Belgian border. Towards the German troops were advanced the French left-wing armies (3rd, 4th and 5th) and the British army. August 21-25 Frontier Battle 1914. In view of the threat of an enemy bypassing the left flank of the allied forces, the French command began to withdraw armies inland in order to gain time to regroup their forces and prepare for a counteroffensive. The right wing French armies (1st and 2nd) launched an offensive in Alsace and Lorraine from August 7-14, but in connection with the invasion of German troops in France through Belgium, it was discontinued and both armies were withdrawn to their original positions. The main group of German armies continued the offensive in the south-west towards Paris and, having gained a number of private victories over the armies of the Entente at Le Cato (August 26), Nelya and Pruillard (Aug. 28-29), Saint-Quentin and Giza (29- August 30), by September 5, went to the river. Marne between Paris and Verdun. The French command completed the regrouping of its troops and, having formed two new armies from the reserves (6th and 9th), created superiority in this direction. AT Battle of Marne 1914   (September 5-12) German troops were defeated and forced to retreat beyond the rr. Ena and Oise, where they consolidated their positions and stopped the Allied counterattack by September 16. The desire of opponents to seize the "free space" west of the river. Oise to the coast of the Pas de Calais, covering the open flanks of each other from the north, poured on September 16 - October 15 into three maneuver operations, which were called "Running to the sea".   The troops of both sides went to the coast west of Ostend. The Belgian army, leaving Antwerp on October 8, occupied a site on the left flank of the Allied armies. The battle in Flanders (on the rivers Isere and Ypres) October 15 - November 20 did not change the general situation. The Germans' attempts to break through the Allied defenses and occupy the ports on the coast of the Pas de Calais were unsuccessful. The parties, having suffered heavy losses, ceased active hostilities and gained a foothold on the achieved lines. A positional front has been established from the Swiss border to the North Sea. In December 1914, it had a length of 720 km   of which the French army accounted for 650 km   British - 50 km   and Belgian - 20 km

Military operations at the East European Theater began on August 4-7 (17-20) by the invasion of insufficiently trained troops of the Russian North-Western Front (Commander-in-Chief General Ya. G. Zhilinsky, Chief of Staff General V. A. Oranovsky) in East Prussia. During East Prussian operation 1914 The 1st Russian army (commander General P.K. Rennenkampf), advancing from V., defeated parts of the 1st German corps at Stallupenen on August 4 (17), and defeated the main forces on August 7 (20) in the Gumbinnen-Goldap battle 8th German Army; On August 7 (20), the 2nd Russian army (commander General A.V. Samsonov) invaded East Prussia, striking the flank and rear of the 8th German army. The commander of the 8th army decided to begin the withdrawal of troops from East Prussia for the Vistula, but the German high command, dissatisfied with this decision, changed the leadership of the army on August 10 (23), appointing it commander of General P. Hindenburg, and chief of staff - General E. Ludendorff. The offensive of Russian troops in East Prussia forced the German command to withdraw 2 corps and 1 cavalry division from the Western Front and send them to the Eastern Front on August 13 (26), which was one of the reasons for the defeat of German troops in the Battle of Marne. Taking advantage of the lack of interaction between the 1st and 2nd armies and the mistakes of the Russian command, the enemy managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the 2nd and then the 1st Russian armies and push them away from East Prussia. Simultaneously with the East Prussian operation took place Battle of Galicia 1914,   in which the troops of the Russian South-Western Front (Commander-in-Chief General N. I. Ivanov, Chief of Staff General M. V. Alekseev) inflicted a major defeat on the Austro-Hungarian forces, occupied Lviv on August 21 (September 3), and besieged the fortress on September 8 (21) Przemysl and, chasing the enemy, by September 13 (26) went to the river. Vysloka and the foothills of the Carpathians. The threat of the invasion of Russian troops in the German province of Silesia was created. The German high command hastily transferred large forces from East Prussia to the Czestochowa and Krakow area and formed a new (9th) army with the aim of launching a counterattack on Ivangorod (Demlin) to the flank and rear of the troops of the Southwestern Front and thereby disrupting the impending Russian offensive in Silesia. Thanks to the timely regrouping of forces conducted by the Russian Headquarters, the Russian armies in Warsaw-Ivangorod operation 1914 by September 26 (October 9) they stopped the advance of the 9th German and 1st Austro-Hungarian armies on Ivangorod, and then repelled the attack of German troops on Warsaw. On October 5 (18), Russian troops launched a counterattack and threw the enemy back to the starting line. The Russian armies again began preparations for an invasion of Germany. The German command transferred its 9th army from the Czestochowa region to the north, deciding to strike at the right flank and behind the rear of the Russian offensive group. AT Lodz Operation 1914, which began on October 29 (November 11), the enemy managed to disrupt the Russian plan, but his intention to encircle the 2nd and 5th Russian armies in the Lodz region ended in failure, and the German troops were forced to retreat with heavy losses. At the same time, the Russian troops of the Southwestern Front in the Czestochowa-Krakow operation defeated the Austro-Hungarian forces and reached the approaches to Krakow and Czestochowa. Having exhausted their capabilities, the parties switched to defense. Russian armies, experiencing an acute shortage of ammunition, entrenched at the turn of the river. Bzura, Ravka, Nida.

At the Balkan Theater on August 12, Austro-Hungarian troops invaded Serbia. In the oncoming battle near the ridge of Cera, which began on August 16, the Austro-Hungarian troops were defeated and by August 24 they were driven back to their original positions beyond the rr. Drina and Sava. On September 7, they resumed the offensive. The lack of artillery and ammunition forced the Serbs on November 7 to retreat to V. beyond the river. Kolubara, but on December 3, having received help with supplies from Russia and France, they went on a counterattack and by mid-December freed their country from enemy troops. The parties took up defense at the border river lines.

In late 1914, hostilities began in the Middle East Theater. On July 21 (August 3), Turkey declared its neutrality, preparing to take the side of the Central Powers at a convenient moment. Germany, encouraging the predatory aspirations of Turkey in the Caucasus, sent a battle cruiser to the Black Sea at the beginning of the war (August 10) to support the Turkish fleet Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. On October 16 (29), Turkish and German ships suddenly fired on Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia, Novorossiysk. October 20 (November 2) Russia, followed by Great Britain (November 5) and France (November 6) declared war on Turkey; November 12, Turkey declared a "holy war" against the powers of the Entente. Turkish ground troops (about 800 thousand people in total) were deployed: 1st, 2nd and 5th armies - in the area of \u200b\u200bthe straits, 3rd - in Turkish Armenia, 4th - in Syria and Palestine, 6 - in Mesopotamia (the supreme commander was nominally Sultan Mehmed V, but in fact he was Minister of War Enver Pasha; Chief of Staff - German General F. Bronzart von Sclendlendorf). Russia advanced the Caucasian army on the border with Turkey (Commander-in-Chief I.I. Vorontsov-Dashkov, his assistant General A.Z. Myshlaevsky; 170 thousand people, 350 guns). In the 2nd half of October (beginning of November), clashes of troops on the Erzurum direction took place, on October 25 (November 7) the Russians took hold of fortified positions at Keprikei (at 50 km   north of Erzurum), but under the onslaught of superior enemy forces by November 26 (December 9) retreated to their original positions. On December 9 (22), the 3rd Turkish Army went on the offensive, but during Sarykamysh operation 1914-15   was defeated. November 10 at the mouth of the river. The Tiger and Euphrates landed the British Expeditionary Force, forming the Mesopotamian Front. On November 22, the British occupied Basra left by the Turks, on December 9 captured El Qurna and firmly established themselves in the southern part of Mesopotamia.

The fighting in Africa, the Far East and the Pacific Ocean was unsuccessful for Germany, depriving it during one military campaign of most of the colonies. In 1914, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands in the Pacific and the German naval base of Qingdao in China were captured by Japan, the German part of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands - by the Australians, Samoa - by the New Zealanders. Anglo-French troops occupied the German colonies in Africa: Togo - in August 1914, Cameroon - in January 1916, South-West Africa - by July 1915, East Africa - by the end of 1917 (German troops continued to conduct partisan operations here on the territory of the Portuguese colony of Mozambique and the British colony of Rhodesia until the end of the war).

Military operations at sea in 1914 were limited. On August 28, a battle took place between the light forces of the English and German fleets in the North Sea near the island Helgoland;   November 5 (18) on the Black Sea at Cape Sarych (at 50 km southeast of Sevastopol) the Russian squadron fought with the German ships Geben and Breslau, which, having received damage, left. The German command tried to intensify the actions of its fleet on the English sea lanes in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. The squadron of Admiral M. Spee (5 cruisers) on November 1 defeated the English squadron of Admiral K. Cradock in Coronel Battle 1914,   but December 8th was destroyed by Falkland Islands   English squadron of Admiral F. Sterdy. By early November, 3 more German cruisers operating in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans were sunk.

The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results to either side. In France, both sides switched to positional defense. Elements of positional forms of struggle arose at the East European Theater. Military operations showed the fallacy of the pre-war calculations of the General Staffs on the short-term nature of the war. In the very first operations, accumulated stocks of weapons and ammunition were used up, at the same time it became clear that the war would be prolonged and urgent measures were needed to mobilize industry and deploy weapons and ammunition production:

Campaign 1915.   The Anglo-French command decided to switch to the strategic defense at the West European Theater in order to gain time for the accumulation of material resources and the preparation of reserves. The main burden of the armed struggle in the 1915 campaign was shifted to Russia. At the request of the Allies, the Russian command was planning an offensive against Germany (in East Prussia) and Austria-Hungary (in the Carpathians) at the same time. The prospect of a long war did not suit the German high command, which understood that Germany and its allies would not be able to withstand a protracted struggle with the Entente powers, which had superiority in human resources and material resources. Therefore, the German plan for the 1915 campaign was offensive in the expectation of a quick victory. Not having the strength to simultaneously attack the West and West, the German command decided to concentrate their main efforts on the Eastern Front in order to defeat Russia and withdraw it from the war. A defense was planned on the Western Front.

Russia had 104 divisions against 74 divisions of the Central Powers (36 German and 38 Austro-Hungarian). In an effort to forestall the impending Russian offensive, the German command on January 25 (February 7) - February 13 (26) undertaken in East Prussia August operation 1915, but its goal - the encirclement of the 10th army of the Russian North-Western Front - did not reach. In February - March, the Russian command of the forces of the 10th, 12th and 1st armies conducted the Prasnysh operation (see Prasnysh operations 1915 ), during which the enemy was driven back to the borders of East Prussia. On the southern wing of the Eastern Front, the command of the Russian South-Western Front carried out Carpathian operation 1915.   On March 9 (22), the 120,000-strong garrison of Przemysl capitulated by the Russian troops capitulated. Heavy, but ineffective battles in the Carpathians continued until April 20. Experiencing an acute shortage of weapons and ammunition, the Russian troops in April 1915 ceased active operations.

By the summer of 1915, the German command of the troops deployed from the Western Front formed the 11th Army in Galicia, which, together with the 4th Austro-Hungarian Army under the general command of German General A. Mackensen, went on the offensive on April 19 (May 2). Having huge superiority in forces and means (especially in artillery), the enemy broke through the defenses of the 3rd Russian army in the area of \u200b\u200bGorlice. Gorlitsky breakthrough 1915   led to the deep retreat of the troops of the Southwestern Front, which in May - June left Galicia. At the same time, German troops advanced in the Baltic states: on April 24 (May 7) they occupied Libau (Liepaja), went to Shavli (Šiauliai) and Kovno (Kaunas). In July, the German command tried to break through the defenses of the 1st Russian army and, in conjunction with the 4th Austro-Hungarian and 11th German armies advancing from Galicia in a northeast direction, attacked the newly formed 12th Army near Prasnysh a group of Russian troops stationed in Poland. This plan did not succeed, but the Russian troops were forced to leave Poland. In august in Vilnius operation 1915   Germans tried to surround the 10th Russian army in the Vilno region. The enemy managed to break through the Russian defenses on August 27 (September 9) ( Sventsian breakthrough 1915 ) and go to the rear of the 10th Army, but the Russian command liquidated this breakthrough. In October 1915, the front stabilized on the line of Riga, p. Western Dvina, Dvinsk, Smorgon, Baranovichi, Dubno, r. Stripping. The plan of the German command to withdraw Russia from the war in 1915 failed.

At the beginning of 1915, there were 75 French, 11 English, and 6 Belgian divisions in the West European Theater against 82 German divisions. In September 1915, the number of English divisions was brought to 31, and in December to 37. Without planning major operations, both sides engaged in local battles in the theater of war during the 1915 campaign. On April 22, the German command first used chemical weapons (chlorine) on the Western Front near Iprom - 15 thousand people were poisoned .; German troops advanced 6 km   In May - June, the Allies launched an offensive in Artois, but it was carried out by insignificant forces and did not affect the course of hostilities on the Russian front. In the interests of coordinating the strategic efforts of the Entente powers, an Inter-Allied Military Council was formed on 7 July in Chantilly. The Council decided to assist Russia in launching an offensive on the Western Front in order to divert significant German forces from the Eastern Front. However, offensive operations were carried out only on September 25 - October 6 in Champagne and Artois, when active hostilities on the Russian front actually stopped. At the same time, the allied forces failed to break through the powerful enemy defenses.

At the Middle East Theater, the most active military operations were conducted by Russian troops. During the Alashkert operation, they cleared areas of the lakes Van and Urmia from the enemy. The revitalization of German and Turkish agents in Iran forced the Russian command to send troops to northern Iran. The expeditionary Caucasian corps of General N.N. Baratov (about 8 thousand people, 20 guns) was transferred from Tiflis to Baku, transported along the Caspian Sea and landed in the Iranian port of Anzeli (Pahlavi) on October 17 (30). In November, the corps occupied the city of Qazvin, and on December 3 (16) - the city of Hamadan. Attempts by Germany and Turkey to consolidate their influence in Iran and persuade it to war against Russia were thwarted. In October 1915, the Caucasus Front was formed (the commander-in-chief of the Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich), uniting all the Russian forces operating in the Middle East Theater. On the Mesopotamian front in September 1915, British troops (commander General C. Townsend) slowly advanced to Baghdad, but on November 22 at 35 km from him were attacked by the Turks, defeated and besieged on December 7 in Kut al-Amar. The Russian command proposed to organize interaction between the British troops and the troops of the Caucasian Front, but the British command rejected this proposal, not wanting the entry of Russian troops into the oil-bearing region of Mosul. At the end of 1915, the British corps in Mesopotamia was replenished and converted into an expeditionary army. On the Syrian front, the 4th Turkish Army tried, stepping from Palestine to Egypt, to take control of the Suez Canal, but was driven back by two Anglo-Indian divisions. The Turks took up defense in the area of \u200b\u200bEl Arish.

In 1915, the Entente was able to win over Italy. The promises of the Entente powers to satisfy Italy's territorial claims more fully than Germany proposed put an end to the vacillations of the Italian government: on April 26 it was signed Treaty of London 1915.   May 23, 1915 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and Germany - only on August 28, 1916. The Italian army (Commander-in-Chief King Victor Emmanuel III, Chief of Staff General L. Cadorna), had 35 divisions (totaling up to 870 thousand people, 1700 guns) , began military operations on May 24 in two directions: on Trento and at the same time on the river. Isonzo with the task to go to Trieste. In both directions, Italians failed to succeed. Already in June 1915, hostilities at the Italian Theater took on a positional character. Four offensives of Italian troops on the river. Isonzo ended in failure.

In the Balkan Theater, the position of the allies was complicated by the entry in October 1915 into the war on the side of the Central Powers of Bulgaria (see Bulgarian-German treaty 1915   and Bulgarian-Turkish treaty 1915 ). On September 8 (21), Bulgaria announced the mobilization of its army (12 divisions, up to 500 thousand people). At the end of September (beginning of October), 14 German and Austro-Hungarian and 6 Bulgarian divisions were deployed against Serbia under the general command of Field Marshal A. Mackensen. The Serbs had 12 divisions. To assist Serbia, Great Britain and France, by agreement with Greece, began on September 22 (October 5) landing their expeditionary force in Thessaloniki and pushing it to the Greek-Serbian border. On September 24 (October 7), Austro-German and Bulgarian troops launched a concentric attack on Serbia with S., Z. and B. For two months, the Serbian army courageously repelled the onslaught of superior enemy forces, but was forced to retreat through the mountains to Albania. Up to 140 thousand people was transported by the Entente fleet from Durres (Durazzo) to the Greek island of Corfu (Kerkyra). The Anglo-French Expeditionary Force retreated to Thessaloniki, where at the end of 1915 the Thessaloniki Front was formed (see Thessaloniki operations 1915-18 ).   The occupation of Serbia provided the Central Powers with the establishment of direct railway links with Turkey to provide military assistance to it.

During 1915, the German Navy continued its attempts to weaken the fleets of its opponents and undermine the supply of Great Britain by sea. On January 24, there was a battle of English and German squadrons at Dogger Banks (North Sea), in which none of the adversaries succeeded. On February 18, 1915, Germany announced that it was launching an “unlimited submarine war.” However, the sinking of the passenger ships Luzitania (May 7) and Arabik (August 19) caused protests from the USA and other neutral countries. This forced the German government to limit submarine warfare to operations only against warships. In February 1915, the Anglo-French command began the implementation of naval landing Dardanelles operation 1915, trying to force the fleet to force the Dardanelles, break through to Constantinople and lead Turkey out of the war. The breakthrough failed; then in April 1915 a large landing was landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula, but the Turkish troops put up stubborn resistance. The allied command was forced in December 1915 - January 1916 to evacuate the landing troops, which were transported to the Thessaloniki Front. The preparation and conduct of the Dardanelles operation was accompanied by a sharp diplomatic struggle between the allies. The operation was undertaken under the guise of Russian assistance, by agreement with which in March - April 1915 Great Britain and France agreed to transfer Constantinople and the straits to it after the war, provided that it did not impede the partition of Asian Turkey. In fact, the Allies themselves intended to seize the straits and prevent Russia from accessing them. Anglo-French negotiations on the partition of Asian Turkey ended with the signing Sykes - Pico Treaty 1916.   In August, the German fleet undertook Moonsund Operation 1915, ending to no avail. The Russian Black Sea Fleet continued to operate on Turkish sea lanes, and during the Dardanelles operation carried out on April 21 (May 2) shelling the fortifications of the Bosphorus. The 1915 campaign did not live up to the hopes of both warring coalitions, but its outcome was more favorable for the Entente. The German command, not having solved this time the problem of defeating the opponents in turn, was faced with the need to continue the long war on two fronts. The main burden of the struggle in 1915 was made by Russia, which provided France and Great Britain a respite to mobilize the economy for war. Started the mobilization of industry and Russia. In 1915, the role of the Russian Front increased, on which in the summer of 1915 there were 107 Austro-German divisions (54% of all forces of the Central Powers), while at the beginning of the war there were only 52 (33%).

The war placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the working people. The masses were gradually freed from the chauvinistic sentiments that had spread at the beginning of the war, and they were increasingly resolutely opposed the imperialist massacre. Anti-war demonstrations took place in 1915 and the growth of the strike movement in the warring countries began. This process developed especially rapidly in Russia, where military defeats sharply aggravated the situation inside the country and in the fall of 1915 the revolutionary situation reappeared. At the fronts there were cases of fraternization of soldiers of hostile armies. The revolutionary activity of the masses was aroused by the propaganda of the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and the left groups of the socialist and social democratic parties. In the spring of 1915, the International group was created in Germany, headed by C. Liebknecht and R. Luxemburg (in 1916 it became known as the Spartak group). Of great importance for the consolidation of revolutionary, anti-war forces was the international socialist Zimmerwald Conference 1915   (September 5-8). The manifesto she adopted meant "... a step towards an ideological and practical break with opportunism and social chauvinism" (Lenin V.I., Poln. Sobr. Soch., 5th ed., Vol. 27, p. 38).

Campaign 1916.   By the beginning of 1916, the Central Powers, having spent enormous efforts during the first two campaigns, had significantly depleted their resources, but could not withdraw France or Russia from the war. The Entente brought the number of its divisions to 365 against 286 divisions of the German bloc.

The operations of 1916 by the armies of the Central Powers were based on the plan of General E. Falckenhayn, according to which the main efforts were planned to be directed again against France. The main blow was supposed to strike in the area of \u200b\u200bVerdun, which had important operational significance. A breakthrough in this direction threatened the entire northern wing of the Allied armies. At the same time, active actions were planned at the Italian theater by the forces of the Austro-Hungarian armies. At the East European Theater, it was decided to limit themselves to strategic defense. The fundamentals of the campaign plan of the 1916 Entente countries were adopted at a conference in Chantilly (France) on December 6–9, 1915. It was planned to carry out offensives at the East European, West European, and Italian theaters. The Russian army was to begin the offensive first, then the Anglo-French and Italian troops. The strategic plan of the Allies was the first attempt to coordinate the actions of troops on various fronts.

The Entente’s plan set a timeline for a general offensive for the summer of 1916. This ensured that the German command retained strategic initiative in their hands, which it decided to use. At the West European Theater at a front length of 680 km   German troops had 105 divisions against 139 Allied divisions (95 French, 38 English, 6 Belgian). Having no overall superiority in power, the German command began on February 21 Verdun Operation 1916.   Fierce battles, in which both sides suffered heavy losses, continued until December. The Germans spent tremendous efforts, but could not break through the defense.

At the Italian Theater, the command of the Italian army in March 1916 launched the fifth unsuccessful attack on the river. Isonzo. On May 15, Austro-Hungarian forces (18 divisions, 2,000 guns) launched a retaliatory strike in the Trentino area. The 1st Italian army (16 divisions, 623 guns) could not contain the onslaught of the enemy and began to retreat south. Italy requested urgent assistance from its allies.

Of particular importance in the 1916 campaign were operations at the East European Theater, where at the front in 1200 km   128 Russian divisions were deployed against 87 Austro-German divisions. On March 5-17 (18-30), the Naroch operation was carried out, which forced the German troops to temporarily weaken the attacks on Verdun. An important role was played by the Russian offensive on the Southwestern Front (Commander-in-Chief General A. A. Brusilov), launched on May 22 (June 4). The defense of the Austro-German troops was broken through to a depth of 80-120 km   (cm. Southwestern Front offensive 1916 ). The enemy suffered heavy losses (over 1 million people killed and wounded, over 400 thousand people captured). The command of the Central Powers was forced to transfer to the Russian Front II German divisions from France and 6 Austro-Hungarian divisions from Italy. The Russian offensive saved the Italian army from defeat, eased the French’s position near Verdun, and accelerated Romania’s appearance on the Entente’s side. On August 14 (27), Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary, on August 15 (28) - on Germany, on August 17 (30) - on Turkey, and on August 19 (September 1) - on Bulgaria. The Romanian armed forces consisted of 4 armies (23 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions, 250 thousand people). To help the Romanian forces, the Russian 47th Army Corps was transferred across the Danube (to Dobrudja). Romanian troops, with the support of the Russians, launched an offensive in Transylvania on August 20 (September 2) and later in Dobrogea, but did not succeed. The Austro-German command concentrated in Transylvania the army group of General E. Falkenhayn (9th German Army and 1st Austro-Hungarian Army, a total of 26 infantry and 7 cavalry divisions), in Bulgaria - the Danube German Army of General Field Marshal A. Mackensen ( 9 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions). On September 13 (26), both groups under the general command of E. Falkenhayn simultaneously went on the offensive. The Romanian army was defeated. On November 22 (December 6), German troops entered Bucharest, which the Romanians left without a fight. To assist Romania, the Russian command transferred 35 infantry and 13 cavalry divisions. A new Russian Romanian front was formed, whose troops by the end of 1916 delayed the further advancement of the Austro-German armies at the turn of Focsani, the mouth of the Danube. The formation of the Romanian front increased the total length of the front line by 500 km   and distracted about 1/4 of all the armed forces of Russia, which worsened the strategic position of the Russian army. The Anglo-French troops after long preparations on July 1 launched a major offensive on the river. Somma,   which, however, developed extremely slowly. On September 15, the British first used tanks. The Allies continued the offensive until mid-November, but despite huge losses, they advanced by only 5-15 kmThe German position front was not broken.

Troops of the Russian Caucasian Front successfully held at the Middle East Theater Erzurum operation 1916, Trebizond operation 1916, Erzincan and Ognot operations. They were busy. Erzurum, Trebizond, Erzincan. The 1st Caucasian Cavalry Corps of General N. N. Baratov launched an offensive on the Mosul and Baghdad directions in order to assist the British besieged in Kut al-Amar. In February, Kermanshah occupied the corps, and in May it reached the Turkish-Iranian border. In connection with the surrender of the Kut al-Amara garrison on April 28, 1916, the corps ceased further offensive, taking up defense east of Kermanshah. Military operations at sea were characterized by the continuation of the distant blockade of Germany by the British fleet. German submarines were actively operating on sea lanes. The system of minefields was improved. An important event was Battle of Jutland 1916 -   the only major naval battle during the entire war between the main forces of the British (Admiral J. Djelliko) and German (Admiral R. Scheer) fleets. It involved 250 surface ships, including 58 large (battleships and battle cruisers). Due to the superiority of forces, the British fleet, despite greater losses than the Germans, won, undermining the German command's belief in the possibility of breaking through the naval blockade. The Russian Black Sea Fleet continued operations on enemy naval communications, blocking the Bosphorus from August 1916.

The 1916 campaign did not lead to the achievement of the goals set at its beginning by both coalitions, but the superiority of the Entente over the Central Powers became obvious. The strategic initiative completely passed into the hands of the Entente, and Germany was forced to defend itself on all fronts.

The bloody battles of 1916, accompanied by huge casualties and a large expenditure of material resources, depleted the resources of the warring powers. The deterioration of the situation of workers continued. The year 1916 was marked by a further strengthening of the revolutionary movement. An important role for rallying the revolutionary forces played Kienthal Conference 1916   (April 24-30) internationalists. A particularly rapid upsurge of the revolutionary movement took place in Russia, where the war finally revealed to the masses the whole rottenness of tsarism. A powerful wave of strikes led by the Bolsheviks swept through the country, under the slogans of the struggle against war and autocracy. In July - October, the national liberation unfolded Central Asian Uprising 1916. In the fall of Russia, a revolutionary situation developed directly. The inability of tsarism to win the war displeased the Russian imperialist bourgeoisie, which began to prepare a palace coup. The revolutionary movement grew in other countries. April 24-30 happened Irish Uprising 1916,   brutally crushed by the British troops. On May 1, a massive anti-war demonstration at hand took place in Berlin. K. Liebknecht. The aggravation of the revolutionary crisis forced the imperialists to strive for a quick end to the war. In 1916, attempts were made by Germany and tsarist Russia to enter into separate peace negotiations.

Campaign 1917   prepared and proceeded in the midst of a significant growth of the revolutionary movement in all countries. Among the masses of people at the front and in the rear, the protest against the war with its enormous losses, a sharp decline in living standards, and an increase in the exploitation of the working people intensified. A huge influence on the further course of the war was exerted by revolutionary events in Russia.

By the beginning of the 1917 campaign, the parties had: the Entente 425 divisions (21 million people), the Central Powers 331 division (10 million people). In April 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente. The Allies adopted the fundamentals of the 1917 campaign plan at the 3rd conference in Chantilly on November 15-16 and 1916 and specified in February 1917 at a conference in Petrograd. The plan called for private operations at all fronts at the beginning of the year in order to maintain strategic initiative, and in the summer of 1917 a transition to a general offensive at the West European and East European theaters with a view to finally defeating Germany and Austria-Hungary. The German command decided to abandon offensive operations on land and focus on the conduct of "unlimited submarine warfare." They believed that in this way it would be possible within six months to disrupt the economic life of Great Britain and withdraw it from the war. On February 1, 1917, Germany re-declared Great Britain "unlimited submarine warfare." During February - April 1917, German submarines destroyed over 1,000 merchant ships of the Union and neutral countries with a total tonnage of 1,752 thousand. t   By mid-1917, Britain had lost about 3 million. t the tonnage of its merchant fleet was in a difficult situation, because it could make up for losses only by 15%, which was not enough for the necessary exports and imports. However, by the end of 1917, after organizing enhanced protection of communications and the creation of various anti-submarine defense systems, the Entente managed to reduce the loss of merchant ships. "Unlimited submarine war" did not live up to the hopes of the German command, and the ongoing blockade of Germany caused hunger in the country. The Russian command, in fulfillment of the general plan of the campaign on December 23-29, 1916 (January 5-11, 1917) conducted the Mitau operation with the aim of diverting part of the forces from the West European Theater. February 27 (March 12) in Russia February bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1917.   The proletariat, led by the Bolsheviks, demanding peace, bread and freedom, led the majority of the army, consisting of workers and peasants, and overthrew the autocracy. However, bourgeois came to power Interim government,   which, expressing the interests of Russian imperialism, continued the war. Having deceived the masses of soldiers with false promises of peace, it launched an offensive operation by the troops of the Southwestern Front, which ended in failure (see June offensive 1917 ).   By the summer of 1917, with the help of Russia, the fighting ability of the Romanian army was restored, and in July - August, the Russian-Romanian troops in the Meraesti battle discarded the German troops, trying to break through to Ukraine. On August 19-24 (September 1-6), during the Riga defensive operation, Russian troops surrendered Riga. September 29 (October 12) - October 6 (19) the revolutionary sailors of the Baltic Fleet in Moonsund Operation 1917 heroically defended the Moonsund Archipelago. These were the last operations on the Russian front. October 25 (November 7) 1917 happened The Great October Socialist Revolution,   in which the proletariat, in alliance with the poorest peasantry under the leadership of the Communist Party, overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie and landowners and ushered in the era of socialism. Fulfilling the will of the people, the Soviet government appealed to all the belligerent powers with a proposal to conclude a just democratic peace without annexations and indemnities (see Peace decree ). In view of the refusal of the Entente and the United States to accept this proposal, the Soviet government on December 2 (15) was forced to conclude a ceasefire with the German coalition and begin peace negotiations. On November 26 (December 9), Romania concluded the Focsan armistice with Germany and Austria-Hungary. In the Italian theater in April 1917 there were 57 Italian divisions against 27 Austro-Hungarian. Despite the numerical superiority, the Italian command failed to succeed. Three regular attacks on the river. Isonzo failed. October 24 in the area Caporetto   Austro-Hungarian troops, having gone on the offensive, broke through the defense of the Italians and inflicted a major defeat on them. Only with the help of 11 English and French divisions transferred to the Italian Theater did the end of November stop the advance of the Austro-Hungarian troops on the river. Piave. At the Middle East Theater, British troops successfully advanced in Mesopotamia and Syria: they occupied Baghdad on March 11, and Beersheba, Gaza, Jaffa, and Jerusalem at the end of 1917.

The plan of operations of the Entente in France, developed by General R.J. Nivelles, provided for the main strike on the river. Aene, between Reims and Soissons, to break through the enemy defenses and encircle German troops in the Noyon ledge. The German command, learning about this, by March 17, withdrew its troops by 30 km   to the previously prepared Siegfried Line. The French command then decided to launch an offensive on a wide front, introducing large forces and assets: 6 French and 3 British armies (90 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions), over 11 thousand guns and mortars, 200 tanks, about 1 thousand aircraft. The Allied offensive began on April 9 in the Arras area, April 12 - at Saint-Quentin, April 16 - in the Reims area and lasted until April 20-28, and in some directions until May 5. The April offensive ("Nivelles massacre") ended in complete failure. Having lost up to 200 thousand people, the allied forces could not break through the front. The unrest began in the French army, which were brutally suppressed. In the attack on the river. Ena participated in the Russian brigade, located in France since 1916. In the 2nd half of 1917, the Anglo-French troops carried out a number of private operations: at Messina (June 7 - August 30), Ypres (July 31 - November 6), Verdun (20 - 27 August), Malmeson (October 23-26) and Cambra   (November 20 - December 6), where tanks were first massively used.

The 1917 campaign did not bring the expected results to any of the warring parties. The revolution in Russia and the lack of concerted action by the allies foiled the Entente's strategic plan, designed to defeat the Austro-Hungarian bloc. Germany managed to repel enemy attacks, but her hopes of achieving victory through "unlimited submarine warfare" were futile, and the forces of the coalition of the Central Powers were forced to go on the defensive.

Campaign 1918.   By the beginning of 1918, the military-political situation had radically changed. After the revolution, Soviet Russia emerged from the war. In other warring countries, a revolutionary crisis was brewing under the influence of the Russian revolution. Entente countries, having 274 divisions (without Russia), at the beginning of 1918 had approximately equal forces with the German bloc, which had 275 divisions (not counting 86 divisions in Ukraine, in Belarus and the Baltic states and 9 divisions in the Caucasus). The military-economic situation of the Entente was more solid than the German bloc. The Allied command believed that for the final defeat of Germany, it was necessary to prepare with the help of the United States even more powerful human and material resources. The 1918 campaign planned strategic defense in all theaters. A decisive offensive against Germany was postponed until 1919. The Central Powers, whose resources were drawing to a close, sought to end the war as soon as possible. Having concluded with Soviet Russia on March 3 Brest Peace 1918,   the German command decided in March to go on the offensive in order to defeat the Entente armies. At the same time, German and Austro-Hungarian troops, in violation of the Brest Treaty, began the occupation of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states (see Civil War and Military Intervention 1918-20 ).   Romania was drawn into the anti-Soviet intervention, which on May 7 concluded a bonded Bucharest Peace Treaty 1918   with the Central Powers.

On March 21, the German command launched a major offensive operation on the Western Front (the so-called March offensive in Picardy). It intended to strike at Amiens to cut off British troops from the French, defeat them and go to sea. Having ensured superiority in forces and means (62 divisions, 6,824 guns and about 1,000 aircraft versus 32 divisions, about 3,000 guns and about 500 aircraft by the British), German troops broke through the Allied defenses to a depth of 60 km By introducing reserves into the battle, the Allied command liquidated the breakthrough. Having suffered heavy losses (about 230 thousand people), the German troops did not achieve their goal. April 9, they again went on the offensive in Flanders on the river. Fox advanced on 18 km   but by April 14 they were stopped by the Allies. On May 27, the German armies launched a strike north of Reims (battle of Shmen de Dam). They managed to force the river. Ena, break through the defense of the Allied forces to a depth of 60 km   and by May 30 go to the river. Marne (in the Chateau Thierry area). Caught in less than 70 km   from Paris, they did not overcome the resistance of the French and on June 4 switched to defense. Equally futile was the attempt by German forces to advance between June 9-13 between Mondidier and Noyon. On July 15, the German command made a final attempt to defeat the Allied armies, launching a large offensive on the Marne. The battle of Marne in 1918 (the so-called second Marne) did not live up to the Germans' hopes. Forcing the river. Marna, they could only advance 6 km   On July 18, the Allied forces launched a counterattack, and by August 4 threw the enemy back to the RR. Ena and Vel. For four months of offensive operations, the German command completely exhausted all its reserves, but could not achieve the defeat of the Entente armies. The Allies firmly mastered the strategic initiative. August 8-13, the Anglo-French armies in Amiens operation 1918   inflicted a major defeat on the German troops and forced them to retreat to the line from which their March offensive began in 1918. On August 8, E. Ludendorff called "the black day of the German army." On September 12-15, the 1st American Army (commander General J. Pershing) defeated the German forces at Saint-Miel (Saint-Miel operation). On September 26, the general offensive of the allied forces began (202 divisions against 187 weakened German forces) on the entire 420-km front from Verdun to the sea coast. The German defense was broken through.

The 1918 campaign at other theaters ended in the defeat of the German allies. At the Italian Theater, the Entente had 56 divisions (including 50 Italian), over 7040 guns and more than 670 aircraft; Austria-Hungary - 60 divisions, 7,500 guns and 580 aircraft. On June 15, the Austro-Hungarian forces, having launched an offensive south of Trento, broke through the enemy’s defenses and advanced 3-4 km but the counterattack of the Allied forces on June 20-26 was thrown back to the starting line. October 24, the Italian army went on the offensive on the river. Piave, but has made only minor progress. On October 28, units of the 6th and 5th Austro-Hungarian armies, refusing to fight, began to leave their positions. Soon the troops of other armies joined them, and on November 2, an indiscriminate retreat of all Austro-Hungarian troops began. On November 3, in Villa Giusti (near Padua), Austria-Hungary signed a truce with the Entente. At the Balkan Theater, allied forces (29 infantry divisions - 8 French, 4 English, 6 Serbian, 10 Greek, 1 Italian and French cavalry group; total about 670 thousand people, 2070 guns) and troops of the Central Powers (11th German Army , 1st, 2nd and 4th Bulgarian armies and the Austro-Hungarian corps; in total about 400 thousand people, 1138 guns) opposed each other at the front from the Aegean to the Adriatic Sea (350 km).   On September 15, the Allies launched an offensive, and by September 29 they advanced on the front at 250 km   to a depth of 150 km   The 11th German army was surrounded and surrendered on September 30, the Bulgarian armies were defeated. On September 29, Thessaloniki, Bulgaria signed a truce with the Entente. On the Syrian front, the British army of General E.G. Allenby and the Arab army under the command of Emir Faisal and the British intelligence colonel T.E. Lawrence (a total of 105 thousand people, 546 guns) acted on the Syrian front. Turkey had three armies (4th, 7th and 8th; a total of 34 thousand people, up to 330 guns). The Allied offensive began on September 19. Having broken through the enemy’s defenses and pushed horseback units to its rear, the allied forces forced the 8th and 7th Turkish armies to capitulate; The 4th Turkish army retreated. From September 28 to October 27, the Allies occupied Akku, Damascus, Tripoli and Aleppo. On October 7, French naval landing in Beirut was landed. On the Mesopotamian Front, the British Expeditionary Army gene. W. Marshall (5 divisions) in September launched an offensive against the 6th Turkish Army (4 divisions). On October 24, the British occupied Kirkuk, on October 31 - Mosul. On October 30, the Entente and Turkey signed on board the English battleship Agamemnon in the Wise Bay (Lemnos Island) between Entente and Turkey The Mudros Armistice 1918.

In early October, the situation of Germany became hopeless. On October 5, the German government appealed to the US government for a ceasefire. The allies demanded the withdrawal of German troops from all occupied territories in the West. The military defeat and economic exhaustion of the country accelerated the brewing of the revolutionary crisis in Germany. The victory and development of the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia had a great influence on the growth of the revolutionary movement of the German people. On October 30, 1918 the uprising of sailors in Wilhelmshaven began, on November 3 Kiel Uprising 1918   in the German fleet. On November 6, the uprising spread to Hamburg, Lübeck and other cities. November 9, revolutionary German workers and soldiers overthrew

Tab. 3. - The number of military equipment produced during the war

	Germany	Austria-Hungary		United Kingdom				Total
Rifles, th ........ Machine guns, th ........ Art. guns, th ........ Mortars, thousand ....... Tanks, thousand .......... Aircraft, th ........ Art. shells, million ...... Ammunition, billion ........ Cars, thousand .......

In the First World War, the Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia) opposed each other and the powers of the Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, to which Bulgaria and Turkey joined during the hostilities.

The war was the result of sharp contradictions that arose between the leading capitalist countries of the world, whose interests clashed in various parts of the globe, and primarily in Asia, the Middle East and Africa. The contradictions between these countries turned into a fierce struggle for dominance in the world market, for the seizure of foreign territories and the establishment of their economic dominance.

A month after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The First World War began. The western front stretched more than 700 km from Switzerland to the Belgian coast, in addition, military operations were carried out in eastern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the oceans.

In the most general form, two stages of the First World War can be distinguished.

In the face of economic difficulties in the rear, as well as in connection with the entry of the United States into the war on the side of the Entente, the war became increasingly unpromising for Germany. Under these conditions, the German command came to the conclusion that it was necessary to end the war. On September 20, 1918, Field Marshal Hindenburg and General Ludendorff announced to the Kaiser that it was necessary to immediately conclude a truce, since at any moment a strategic breakthrough of the Western Front is possible.

November revolution

The Germans hardly understood in those days what was happening. There were cries everywhere that predicted a speedy victory, the possible territorial acquisitions of Germany were discussed, the soldiers felt like people who had completely fulfilled their duty. Columns of returning war veterans were bombarded with colors. The news of the military defeat of Germany, coming from the official authorities, was one of the reasons for the revolution, which swept away the Kaiser system. In a matter of days, November 8–9, 1918, a revolution swept the country. On the night of November 10, 1918, William II emigrated to Holland. The events that took place in Germany were called the November Revolution.

14 points of Woodrow Wilson

On January 8, 1918, US President W. Wilson spoke at a meeting of the House of Congress with a question about the American objectives of the war, which were set out in "14 points." Eight points were “mandatory”: 1) open diplomacy, 2) freedom of navigation, 3) elimination of trade barriers, 4) general disarmament, 5) impartial resolution of colonial disputes, 6) re-establishment of independent Belgium, 7) withdrawal of troops from Russian territory, 8) the establishment of the League of Nations.

Other “desirable” points were: the return of France to Alsace and Lorraine, obtaining autonomy for the national minorities of Austria-Hungary and Turkey, revising the borders of Italy, the withdrawal of foreign troops from the Balkans, giving the Dar Danell the status of an international zone and creating an independent Poland with access to to the sea.

First Compiegne Truce

A truce between Germany and the Entente was concluded in Kompiensky forest November 11, 1918   After an exchange of notes with Germany, US President W. Wilson proposed a truce based on the “14 points” he had developed that rejected annexations and indemnities. It was under these conditions that Germany agreed to lay down her arms. At the time of the armistice, the Germans did not know that the French and British leaders expressed their doubts and objections to the Wilson plan. They were recorded in a separate commentary, which was not shown to the Germans. The comment essentially crossed out Wilson's proposed terms of truce, which suited both Germany and Austria-Hungary.

The First World War ended the liberal era, the beginning of which dates back to the Great French Revolution of 1789.

Economic losses

The English historian Neil Ferguson noted: “The Entente between 1914 and 1918. spent 140 billion dollars, and the powers of the Center - 80 billion dollars. To kill one enemy soldier, the Antanth countries spent 36,485 dollars and 48 cents, and the countries of the Center - 11,344 dollars and 77 cents. The price of each soldier killed was $ 1,414 in the USA and Great Britain, $ 1,354 in Germany, and $ 700 in Russia and Turkey. ”

The victims

The First World War became the most bloody, fierce and lasting cataclysm at that time in the history of mankind. About 10 million people died on the battlefields, another 10 million died of hunger and epidemics. For example, Serbia lost 37% of the mobilized, France - 16.8%, Germany - 15.4%.

World War I

World War I 1914 - 1918 became one of the most bloody and large-scale conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. 38 states participated in this conflict. If we talk about the causes of the First World War briefly, then we can confidently say that this conflict provoked serious economic contradictions of the unions of world powers that developed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that there was probably the possibility of a peaceful settlement of these contradictions. However, feeling the increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved on to more decisive action.

The participants of the First World War were:

on the one hand, the Fourth Union, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);

with another block of the Entente, which was composed of Russia, France, England and the allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was provoked by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by the Gabriel Principle provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

Historians divide the course of World War I into five separate military campaigns.

The start of the 1914 military campaign dates back to July 28. Germany entered the war on August 1, declares war on Russia, and on August 3, France. German troops invade Luxembourg and, later, Belgium. In 1914, the most important events of the First World War unfolded on the territory of France and today are known as “Running to the Sea”. In an effort to encircle enemy forces, both armies moved toward the coast, where the front line ended up closing. France retained control of port cities. Gradually, the front line stabilized. The reckoning of the German command on the quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war assumed a positional character. These are the events on the Western Front. Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted with great joy by most of society. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914. Events in the Balkans did not develop too well. Belgrade captured earlier by Austria was repulsed by the Serbs. There were no active fights in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also opposed Germany, which allowed Russia to secure the Asian borders. Japan began to seize the island colonies of Germany. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasus front and depriving Russia of convenient communication with allied countries. According to the results of the end of 1914, not one of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.

The second campaign in the chronology of World War I dates back to 1915. Fierce military clashes took place on the Western Front. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the tide in their favor. However, the enormous losses incurred by both parties did not lead to serious results. In fact, the front line did not change by the end of 1915. Neither the French spring offensive in Artois nor the operations carried in Champagne and Artois in the fall changed the situation. The situation on the Russian front has changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the poorly trained Russian army soon turned into the August counterattack of the Germans. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only in the fall. The German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, as in France, contributed to the onset of a positional war. 1915 was marked by the entry into the war of Italy (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Fourth Union, it announced the beginning of the war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente, which led to a complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.

During the military campaign of 1916 there was one of the most famous battles of the First World War - Verdun. In an effort to suppress the resistance of France, the German command concentrated enormous forces in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Verdun ledge, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defense. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany were killed. Verdun battle is also known for the first time that a new type of weapon was used - a flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, an offensive operation called the Brusilovsky Breakthrough was undertaken on the Western Russian Front. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the allies. It should be noted that military operations developed not only on land. Between the blocs of the strongest world powers there was a fierce confrontation on the water. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War at sea, Jutland, took place. In general, at the end of the year, the Entente bloc became dominant. The Fourth Peace Alliance proposal was rejected.

During the military campaign of 1917, the superiority of forces toward the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on strategic defense on land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to withdraw England from the war using an submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916-17 there were no active military operations in the Caucasus. The situation in Russia has intensified as much as possible. In fact, after the October events, the country emerged from the war.

1918 brought the Entente major victories, which led to the end of the First World War. After Russia actually emerged from the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, Russia. The terms of the Brest Peace Treaty concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918 turned out to be difficult for the country, but soon this agreement was canceled. Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and partially Belarus, after which she threw all her forces to the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany was on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signed the act of surrender. According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to difficult living conditions, epidemics and hunger, twice as many people died.

According to the results of the First World War, Germany was supposed to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. She lost 1/8 of her territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The Rhine coast is occupied by the Allied forces for 15 years. Also, Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people. All weapons were subject to severe restrictions. But, the Consequences of the First World War affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was in a difficult condition. The standard of living of the population fell sharply, the national economy fell into decay. At the same time, military monopolies have enriched themselves. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which greatly influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.