What is not a section of educational psychology. Psychological analysis of the learning process. Main lines of mental development

Educational psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies facts, patterns and mechanisms of personality formation in conditions educational process.

In modern psychological and pedagogical literature, there are different interpretations of the subject of educational psychology. On the one hand, educational psychology is represented as a borderline complex field of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy and has become a field of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations. On the other hand, focusing on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions developed by P.Ya. Galperin, the subject of educational psychology is defined as the learning process, which includes its structures, characteristics, patterns of progression, age and individual characteristics of the student, and conditions that give the greatest development effect. The object of pedagogical activity is the processes of teaching and upbringing, and the subject is the indicative part of the students’ activities. This definition does not include such subject areas of educational psychology as the psychology of education and the psychology of teacher work.

A.V. Petrovsky, emphasizing the inextricable connection between developmental and educational psychology, believes that “the subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of teaching and upbringing.” From his point of view, educational psychology studies the issues of managing the learning process, the formation of cognitive processes, finds reliable criteria for mental development, determines the conditions under which it is achieved, and considers the relationships between students, as well as between the teacher and the student.

Due to the complexity of the educational process, there are tendencies to emphasize the versatility of the subject of educational psychology, which lies in the fact that with the help of facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering the sociocultural experience of a person (child), there is a process of changing his intellectual and personal development as a subject of educational activities, organized and managed teacher

Educational psychology is a developing field of professional psychological activity designed to solve current problems of education. The educational psychological service began to take shape in Russia in 1970. Using modern achievements of educational psychology, it increases the efficiency of the teaching and educational process. In 1999, the “Regulations on the service of practical psychology in the system of the Ministry of Education in the Russian Federation” were developed. As the main goal of the educational psychological service, the Regulations define the promotion of the formation of a developing lifestyle of students, the development of creativity, creating positive motivation for learning, as well as identifying the psychological causes of violations of personal and social development and preventing the conditions for the occurrence of such violations.

Traditionally, educational psychology as a science is expected to study, explain and describe phenomena occurring in education. At the same time, teachers and psychologists who directly deal with educational practice sometimes do not find in educational psychology answers to questions that are essentially important to them: what are the goals, meaning and purpose of a teacher and psychologist in modern society, how to deal with a particular problem professional situation. Representatives of academic psychology and practitioners have different subjects of professional activity, different goals and means of its implementation, and different professional language. The recommendatory method of interaction between science and practice, especially such a complex one as education, turns out to be insufficiently effective. This is due to the fact that the recommendations lag behind the dynamically developing real situation according to its own laws. In addition, it is not always taken into account who will use them. Practical psychologists also operate in difficult situations. On the one hand, the results of scientific research enrich their understanding of the essence of the educational process, on the other hand, they often do not find answers in them, in particular, to questions such as: what is the meaning of the work of a practical psychologist in education? How do the activities of a psychologist and a teacher compare? How to build a technology for psychological work with subjects of the educational process? The scientific world has recognized the need to understand educational psychology as a sociocultural and practice-transforming science. “It is necessary to consider science from the point of view of its involvement in the processes of man’s creation of the human world and himself in this world. Methodology, theory and methods of education today and, in particular, educational psychology “have gotten rid of the status of a lower genre, unworthy of scientific reflection, and the practice of education itself has become a testing ground for discovering ways and means of new anthropotechnics, tending not to influence people, but to systematically change situations his interactions with people and with himself."

Thus, educational psychology not only studies the psychological mechanisms and patterns of processes occurring in education, but also seeks to integrate them into modern educational practice. Due to this The subject of educational psychology is the mechanisms, patterns and conditions that ensure the process of personality formation in the educational process. Educational psychology as an applied discipline is focused on psychological support of the educational process, which involves identifying and designing effective methods for psychologists and teachers to work with educational practice.

Educational psychology is a branch of science closely related to developmental and differential psychology, psychogenetics, pedagogy, social psychology, philosophy, and cultural studies.

The main tasks of educational psychology are:

Research of mechanisms and provision of conditions necessary for the full mental development of students and the formation of their personality at each age stage;

Identification and design of social and pedagogical conditions that maximally promote personal development, self-determination and self-development of subjects of the educational process;

Creation of methodological tools that allow identifying and predicting the characteristics of a child’s intellectual and personal development;

Studying the psychological characteristics of participants in the educational process (parents, teachers, administration of an educational institution) and the mechanisms of their influence on the child.

Structure of educational psychology includes three sections: psychology of pedagogical activity, psychology of training and psychology of education.

Psychology of pedagogical activity explores the structure of a teacher’s activity, the characteristics of his personality and communication, the stages and patterns of his professionalization. Particular attention is paid to relationships within the teaching staff, causes and methods of resolving conflict situations. Recently, the attention of scientists and practitioners has been drawn to the development of technologies that will ensure the professional and personal development of teachers and create optimal conditions for their interaction with managers of an educational institution.

Psychology of learning studies the patterns of the learning process, features of the formation of educational activities, issues of its motivation, features of the formation cognitive processes in the classroom, the role of the teacher in the development of the child’s creative potential and positive “I-concept”. Within the framework of the psychology of education, a psychological analysis of the forms and methods of training is provided, aimed at the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities and ensuring the development of a psychologically healthy personality.

Psychology of education studies the patterns of personality formation at different age stages, considers the influence of the near and distant social environment on the development of the child, identifies and designs optimal ways of interaction between participants in the educational process.

Educational psychology faces new tasks: development of conceptual approaches to the activities of the educational psychological service, providing it with effective methods of work, creation of a scientifically based and practice-oriented system for training educational psychologists.

The most productive approaches to understanding place of psychologist in education are as follows:

A psychologist is a diagnostician of a situation who helps a child choose a development path and find a training program for him, taking into account his individual characteristics;

Psychologist - conflict specialist and psychotherapist;

Psychologist - designer of the child development situation and the educational environment as a whole;

Psychologist responsible for building communications in the educational environment of the institution;

Psychologist responsible for maintaining the psychological health of children;

Psychologist - management consultant and School Development Specialist as an educational institution.

The function of a psychologist in education is a function of the development of education itself and all its subjects (the child and the children's team, teachers, parents, heads of the educational institution).

Questions and tasks

What does educational psychology study?

Describe the connection between educational psychology and philosophy, cultural studies, developmental psychology, and general psychology.

Imagine that you are talking to a teacher. Formulate in a form understandable to him the goals and objectives of the school’s psychological service.

The term "educational psychology" refers to two different sciences. One of them is basic science , which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education.
Under the same term, “educational psychology,” applied science is also being developed, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.
The term "educational psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874 (Kapterev P.F., 1999; abstract). Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines occupying a borderline position between pedagogy and psychology: “pedology” (O. Chrisman, 1892), “experimental pedagogy” (E. Meiman, 1907). Experimental pedagogy and educational psychology were initially interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L.S. Vygotsky,) (). During the first third of the 20th century. their meanings were differentiated. Experimental pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; educational psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. (see Khrest. 1.1)
Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education. It is closely related to pedagogy, child and differential psychology. Psychophysiology is an area of ​​interdisciplinary research at the intersection of psychology and neurophysiology. Studies the psyche in unity with its neurophysiological substrate - examines the relationship between the brain and psyche. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> psychophysiology .
When considering educational psychology, like any other branch of science, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between its concepts The object of science is that side of reality that this science is aimed at studying. Often the object is fixed in the very name of the science.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">object and subject.
In the general scientific interpretation under object of science understands the area of ​​reality at which the study is aimed at studying The object of science is that side of reality that this science is aimed at studying. Often the object is fixed in the very name of the science.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">science. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science.
The subject of science is the side or sides by which the object of science is represented in it.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Science subject- this is the side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. An object does not capture all sides of an object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject.
Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, man is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, etc. But each science is based on its own subject, i.e. what exactly she studies in the object.
As an analysis of the points of view of various authors shows, many scientists define the status of educational psychology differently, which may indicate an ambiguity in resolving the issue of the subject of educational psychology (see animation).
For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that educational psychology “studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes... patterns of formation of creative active thinking in schoolchildren... changes in the psyche, i.e. formation of mental neoplasms" ().
A completely different point of view is shared by V.V. Davydov. He proposes that educational psychology be considered a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues that the specifics of each age determine the nature of the manifestation of the laws of knowledge acquisition by students, and therefore Teaching is the activity of a teacher aimed at organizing the learning activities of schoolchildren. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">teaching of one discipline or another should be structured differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This is the position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of learning. He views learning as a form, and development as the content that is realized in it.
There are a number of other points of view. In what follows we will adhere to the generally accepted interpretation, according to which subject of educational psychology are the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural Experience - socially developed ways of carrying out the main types of human activity - work, cognition (including learning), communication, play, self-development, as well as standards interpersonal relationships and moral values.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">human experience, patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as Subject is an actively acting and cognizing individual or social group with consciousness and will.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">subject educational activities organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process(Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).

1.1.2. Structure of educational psychology

• Structure Pedagogical psychology is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of human mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> educational psychology consist of three sections (see Fig. 2):
  • psychology Education - in a broad sense - is a joint activity of a teacher and students, aimed at the child’s assimilation of the meanings of objects of material and spiritual culture, ways of acting with them; in a narrow sense, - the joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning ;
  • psychology Education - 1) purposeful development of a person, including the development of culture, values ​​and norms of society; 2) the process of socialization of the individual, his formation and development as a person throughout his life in the course of his own activity and under the influence of the natural, social and cultural environment, incl. specially organized targeted activities of parents and teachers; 3) acquisition by an individual of social values, moral and legal norms, personality traits and patterns of behavior in the educational process that are socially recognized and approved by the given community.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">education ;
  • teacher psychology.

• 1. Subject of educational psychology- development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic training. Thus, the psychological essence is revealed educational process. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:
  • interrelations of external and internal factors that determine differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;
  • the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning;
  • process management capabilities Teaching is the activity of a student in acquiring new knowledge and mastering methods of acquiring knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">teachings And Development - qualitative and quantitative, progressive and regressive, generally irreversible changes in the human psyche.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">development child;
  • psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc. (see the laboratory of educational psychology of PI RAO).

The psychology of learning studies, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of educational psychology is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of learning.
Research directly into the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of principles domestic psychology, showed that process of assimilation- this is the performance by a person of certain actions or Activity - a dynamic system of interactions of the subject with the world, during which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in the object and the implementation of the subject’s relations mediated by it in objective reality occur. In an activity, from the point of view of its structure, it is customary to distinguish movements and actions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">activities. Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics.
Teaching- this is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the process of Assimilation - the child’s mastery of socially developed experience (i.e., the meanings of objects, ways of acting with them, norms of interpersonal relationships). In assimilation, a person can move from active processing of social experience to improving and transforming the social experience accumulated before him (creativity). Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized training through the search for generalized guidelines, mastering rational methods of action.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">learning. The actions that make up the activity of teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract).
Most studies in the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying patterns Formation is a purposeful influence on a child in order to create conditions for the emergence of new psychological formations and qualities in him.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">formations and the functioning of cognitive activity in the conditions of the existing education system. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the assimilation of various scientific concepts by students high school. The role has also been studied life experience students, the nature of the presented educational material in the assimilation of Knowledge is a reflection in the child’s head of the properties of objects, phenomena of the surrounding world (knowledge about facts, concepts, terms, definitions, laws, theories) and ways of acting with them (rules, techniques, methods, methods, regulations).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">knowledge .
In the 70s XX century in educational psychology, they increasingly began to use another path: the study of the patterns of development of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training. Research has shown that process control Teaching is the activity of a student in acquiring new knowledge and mastering methods of acquiring knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">teachings significantly changes the course of assimilation of knowledge and skills. The research carried out is important for finding the most optimal ways. Education - in a broad sense - is a joint activity of a teacher and students, aimed at the child mastering the meanings of objects of material and spiritual culture, ways of acting with them; in a narrow sense, - the joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">teaching and identifying conditions for effective mental development of students.
Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of Assimilation - the child’s mastery of socially developed experience (i.e., the meanings of objects, ways of acting with them, norms of interpersonal relationships). In assimilation, a person can move from active processing of social experience to improving and transforming the social experience accumulated before him (creativity). Assimilation is carried out in learning, play, work, etc. Assimilation can take place spontaneously in broad social experience through trial and error and in the course of organized learning through the search for generalized guidelines, mastery of rational methods of action.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">mastering knowledge, skills, abilities, formation of various personality traits from individual characteristics students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).
In domestic educational psychology, such theories of learning have been created as the associative-reflex theory, the Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts in a person, put forward by P.Ya. Galperin.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> theory of the gradual formation of mental actions etc. Among Western theories of teaching, the most widespread is the Behaviorist theory - a direction in American psychology of the twentieth century that denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> behaviorist theory(1. ; see laboratory for the study of mental development in adolescence and adolescence; 2. ; see laboratory of the psychological foundations of new educational technologies).

• 2. Subject of educational psychology- development of personality in the conditions of purposeful organization of the activities of the child and the children's team. Educational psychology studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation Worldview is a holistic idea of ​​nature, society, man, which is expressed in the system of values ​​and ideals of an individual, social group, society.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">worldviews, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.
  Research in this area is aimed at studying:
  • the content of the motivational sphere of the student’s personality, its orientation, value orientations, moral attitudes;
  • differences in the self-awareness of students brought up in different conditions;
  • the structure of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;
  • conditions and consequences Mental deprivation (from the Middle Ages. Lat. deprivatio - deprivation) - a person’s mental state that arises as a result of a long-term restriction of his ability to satisfy basic mental needs; characterized by pronounced deviations in emotional and intellectual development, disruption of social contacts.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental deprivation and others (Lishin O.V., 1997; abstract, cover).

(; see laboratory professional development personality PI RAO), (- Department of Acmeology and Psychology professional activity RAGS under the President of the Russian Federation).

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in designing the content and methods of teaching, creating teaching aids, development of diagnostic tools and correction of mental development.

1.2. Problems and main tasks of educational psychology

1.2.1. Tasks of educational psychology

4. The problem of children's giftedness. The problem of giftedness in Russian psychology began to be studied more closely only in the last decade. General talent refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children- “these are children who display one or another special or general giftedness”(Russian..., 1993-1999, T. 2. P. 77; abstract).

• Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent ages.
• Each age has its own development reserves, which can be mobilized during the development of a child’s specially organized activity in relation to the surrounding reality and to his activities.
• The characteristics of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc. (Psychology..., 1978).

• All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance when creating a psychological A theory is a set of views, judgments, and conclusions that are the result of knowledge and understanding of the phenomena and processes of objective reality under study.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">theories mastering sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, based on them, the following principles of educational psychology can be identified (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):
  • Education is based on data from developmental psychology about age reserves, focusing on the “tomorrow” of development.
  • Education is organized taking into account the existing individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.
  • Learning cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the practice of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student’s personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

1.4. Historical aspects of educational psychology

1.4.1. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century.

• I.A. Zimnyaya identifies three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).
  • The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and up to late XIX V. can be called general didactic.
  • The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. and until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development theoretical foundations educational psychology. Let us consider in more detail each of the named stages of development of educational psychology.

I.A. Zimnyaya called the first stage general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).
The role of psychology in the practice of teaching and upbringing was realized long before educational psychology became an independent scientific branch. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.J. Rousseau et al. emphasized the need to build the pedagogical process on the basis of psychological knowledge about the child.
Analyzing the contribution of G. Pestalozzi, P.F. Kapterev notes that “Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of initiative, self-development” (). Pointing out differences in the development of a child’s mental, physical and moral abilities, Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of their connection and close interaction in learning that moves from simple to more complex in order to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of a person.
He called the idea of ​​developmental education “the great discovery of Pestalozzi” (). Pestalozzi believed that the main goal of teaching was to excite the minds of children to active work, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of their ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of learned concepts. He developed a system of exercises arranged in a certain sequence and aimed at setting in motion the inherent natural forces of man's desire for activity. However, Pestalozzi to some extent subordinated to the task of student development another, no less important task of teaching - equipping students with knowledge. Criticizing the school of his time for verbalism and rote learning, which dulled the spiritual strength of children, the scientist sought to psychologize education, to build it in accordance with " naturally cognition" in a child. Pestalozzi considered the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world to be the starting point of this path.
Follower of I.G. Pestalozzi was one who considered the main principles of education to be conformity with nature, cultural conformity, and initiative ().
Disterweg emphasized that only by knowing psychology and physiology can a teacher ensure the harmonious development of children. In psychology, he saw “the basis of the science of education,” and believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development. Task Education - 1) purposeful development of a person, including the development of culture, values ​​and norms of society; 2) the process of socialization of the individual, his formation and development as a person throughout his life in the course of his own activity and under the influence of the natural, social and cultural environment, incl. specially organized targeted activities of parents and teachers; 3) acquisition by an individual of social values, moral and legal norms, personality traits and patterns of behavior in the educational process that are socially recognized and approved by the given community.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">education - to ensure such independent development. The scientist understood initiative as activity, initiative and considered it the most important personality trait. He saw the development of children's initiative as both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education.
F. Disterweg determined the value of individual educational subjects based on how much they stimulate the student’s mental activity; contrasted the developmental teaching method with the scientific (communicating) one. Basics Didactics (from the Greek didaktikos - teaching, related to learning) - the theory of education and training, a branch of pedagogy.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">didactics He formulated developmental education in clear rules.
The work of K.D. Ushinsky was of particular importance for the development of educational psychology. His works, primarily the book “Man as a Subject of Education. The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology” (1868-1869), created the prerequisites for the emergence of educational psychology in Russia. The scientist viewed education as “the creation of history.” The subject of education is a person, and if Pedagogy is a branch of science that reveals the essence, patterns of education, the role of educational processes in the development of personality, developing practical ways and means of increasing their effectiveness.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects. This meant studying the physical and mental characteristics person, the influences of “unintentional upbringing” - social environment, the "spirit of the times", its culture and social relations.

• K.D. Ushinsky gave his interpretation of the most complex and always relevant issues:
  • about the psychological nature of education;
  • the limits and possibilities of education, the relationship between education and training;
  • limits and possibilities of learning;
  • the relationship between education and development;
  • a combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education.

1.4.2. The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s. XX century

The second stage is associated with the period when Educational psychology is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of human mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.
As an independent field of knowledge, educational psychology began to take shape in mid-19th century, and has been developing intensively since the 80s. XIX century
The significance of the initial period of development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the fact that in the 60s. XIX century fundamental provisions were formulated defining Formation is the acquisition by a mental process of new characteristics and forms in the process of development.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">becoming educational psychology as an independent scientific discipline. At that time, tasks were set on which the efforts of scientists should be concentrated, problems were identified that needed to be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.
Guided by the needs of education and training, the task of forming a comprehensive personality, scientists of that period raised the question of a broad, comprehensive study of the child and the scientific basis for guiding his development. The idea of ​​a holistic, comprehensive study of the child sounded very convincing. Consciously not wanting to limit the theoretical basis of pedagogy to psychology alone, they stimulated the development of research at the intersection of different sciences. Consideration in unity and interconnection of the three main sources of pedagogy - psychology, physiology, Logic (Greek logike) - the science of methods of proof and refutation; a set of scientific theories, each of which considers certain methods of proof and refutation. Aristotle is considered the founder of logic. There are inductive and deductive logic, and in the latter - classical, intuitionistic, constructive, modal, etc. All these theories are united by the desire to catalog such methods of reasoning that lead from true judgments-premises to true judgments-consequences; Cataloging is carried out, as a rule, within the framework of logical calculus. A special role in accelerating scientific and technological progress applications of logic play in computational mathematics, automata theory, linguistics, computer science, etc. See also Mathematical logic.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">logic - served as the basis for contacts between psychology, physiology and medicine, between psychology and Didactics (from the Greek didaktikos - teaching, related to learning) - the theory of education and training, a branch of pedagogy.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">didactics.
This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology (J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which, based on a set of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological dimensions, the characteristics of the child’s behavior were determined in order to diagnose his development (see animation).
Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) - a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.
The founder of pedology is recognized as an American psychologist, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Chrisment. But back in 1867 K.D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as a Subject of Education” anticipated the emergence of pedology: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first know him in all respects.”
In the West, pedology was studied by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Maiman, V. Preyer and others. The founder of Russian pedology is the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. A remarkable scientist also made a great contribution to science.
The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: normal scientific life continued with heated discussions in which approaches were developed and the development difficulties inevitable for a young science were overcome.
Pedology (from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) is a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.") ;" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Pedology sought to study the child, and at the same time study it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all influencing factors. (1884-1941) defined pedology as the science of the age-related development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment (Blonsky P.P., 1999; abstract).
Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, and various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; theory and practice were developed. Psychodiagnostics (from the Greek psyche - soul and diagnosis - recognition, determination) - the science and practice of making a psychological diagnosis, i.e. determining the presence and degree of expression of certain psychological signs in a person.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> psychodiagnostics . In Leningrad and Moscow, there were institutes of pedology, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of a child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropometry, anthropology, Sociology (from the Latin societas - society and ...ology) - the science of society as an integral system and of individual social institutions, processes, social groups and communities, relationships between the individual and society, patterns of mass behavior of people.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">sociology, where theoretical studies were combined with everyday practical work.
In the 30s XX century criticism began of many provisions of pedology (problems of the subject of pedology, bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), which resulted in two resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Pedology was crushed, many scientists were repressed, and the fates of others were crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed. Pedology has been erased from curricula all universities. Labels were generously pasted: L.S. Vygotsky is declared an “eclectic,” M.Ya. Basov and P.P. Blonsky - “propagandists of fascist ideas.” Fortunately, many were able to avoid a similar fate by being able to retrain. For more than half a century, it was carefully hidden that the flower of Soviet psychology - Basov, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Kornilov, Kostyuk, Leontiev, Luria, Elkonin, Myasishchev and others, as well as teachers Zankov and Sokolyansky were pedologists. More recently, when publishing Vygotsky’s works, his lectures on pedology had to be renamed lectures on psychology (; see the article by E.M. Strukchinskaya “L.S. Vygotsky on pedology and related sciences”) ().
A number of works by P.P. Blonsky, works by L.S. Vygotsky and his colleagues in child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Works of I.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurin, created in pedological institutions by their name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological research of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky provided the opportunity to develop theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. (; see the website of the journal "Pedology").
The connection between psychology and pedagogy has given a powerful impetus to the study of age-related characteristics of children and the identification of conditions and factors determining child development. The desire to make pedagogy psychological, to introduce psychology into the pedagogical process became the basis on which the system of educational psychology was built - the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> educational psychology(although the term “educational psychology” itself was not yet used at that time), led to the participation of scientists from various specialties in the development of its problems.
By the end of the 19th century. in Russian psychological and pedagogical science not only the main areas have been formed scientific activity, but significant data were accumulated that made it possible to formulate practical problems.
The idea of ​​psychophysiological research of a child and the use of its results in pedagogical practice received support in justifying the possibility of studying mental phenomena experimentally. The use of experiment in learning conditions undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, did not initially receive a wide response in science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting in the mid-80s, the experiment began to enter into life, and an active desire arose to connect the pedagogical process with it, i.e. create a qualitatively new science of education and training.
The successes of psychological and pedagogical science aroused interest, on the one hand, among practicing teachers, and on the other hand, among philosophers and psychologists who had not previously dealt with issues school education. Teachers felt a clear need for solid psychological knowledge, and psychologists realized how much interesting and instructive there is in school life. The state of science and practice has clearly shown that school and science must meet each other halfway. But the whole question was how to do this, how to organize psychological research so that it was directly aimed at solving pedagogical problems. Equally inevitable was the question of who should conduct such research.
Solving complex theoretical and methodological problems in educational psychology became impossible without their discussion and comprehensive analysis. This was also required further development specific research, determining the main directions of movement of research thought. In other words, a significant expansion of scientific and organizational activities was necessary.
The development of educational psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on scientific foundations. The status of this science has been established as an independent branch of knowledge, which has important theoretical and practical significance. Research in this area has taken a leading place in Russian psychological and pedagogical science. This was due to successes in the study of age-related development, which ensured the authority of developmental and educational psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of upbringing and teaching.
Not only in science, but also in public opinion, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of laws child development is the basis for correct construction education systems. Therefore, scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theorists and organizers of science who enjoyed great authority, in particular: P.F., were involved in the development of these problems. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov. A whole galaxy of domestic psychologists has formed who are actively involved in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of upbringing and teaching. This galaxy included primarily P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinshtein, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, intensive theoretical, methodological and scientific-organizational activity developed - a dynamic system of interactions between the subject and the world, during which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in the object and the implementation of the subject’s relations mediated by it in objective reality occur. In an activity, from the point of view of its structure, it is customary to distinguish movements and actions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">activities aimed at deepening and expanding scientific work, to promote psychological and pedagogical knowledge among practical workers in the education system, to improve their qualifications. On their initiative, specialized scientific centers began to be created to provide research and educational activities and personnel training. Small laboratories, clubs, and classrooms for studying the development of children under certain conditions have become widespread. educational institutions, psychological and pedagogical societies, scientific and pedagogical circles were created who wanted to direct their efforts to improve education and training. Educational psychology has become an integral part of the content of education in pedagogical educational institutions. The question was raised about studying the basics of psychology in high school, and training courses in psychology were developed.

• In domestic educational psychology since the 30s. Research on the procedural aspects of training and development was launched:
  • the relationship between perception and thinking in cognitive activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, S.N. Shabalin);
  • the relationship between memory and thinking (A.N. Leontyev, L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov, P.I. Zinchenko, etc.);
  • development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, etc.);
  • mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh.I. Shif, N.A. Menchinskaya, G.S. Kostyuk, etc.);
  • the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children (N.G. Morozova and others).

In the 40s Many studies have appeared on the psychological issues of mastering educational material in various subjects: a) arithmetic (N.A. Menchinskaya); b) native language and literature (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, L.I. Bozhovich, O.I. Nikiforova), etc. A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N.A. Rybnikov, L.M. Shvarts, T.G. Egorov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).
The main results of the research were reflected in the works of A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, M. Offner, E. Meiman, V.A. Laya and others, in which the features of memorization, speech development, intelligence, the mechanism of skill development, etc. are studied, as well as in the studies of G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Dewey, S. Frenet, Ed. Clapeda; in the experimental study of learning characteristics (J. Watson, Ed. Tolman, G. Ghazri, T. Hull, B. Skinner); in the study of the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, Sh. And K. Byullerov, V. Stern, etc.); in the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the M. Montessori school.

1.4.3. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now

The basis for identifying the third stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.
So, in 1954 he put forward the idea programmed learning, and in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built a complete system problem-based learning, which, on the one hand, continued the development of the system of J. Dewey, who believed that learning should come through problem solving, and on the other, correlated with the provisions of O. Seltz, K. Duncker, S.L. Rubinshteina, A.M. Matyushkin and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phase nature, the beginning of the emergence of thought in a problem situation (P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinstein).
In 1957-1958 the first publications of P.Ya. appeared. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts in a person, put forward by P.Ya. Galperin.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> theories of the gradual formation of mental actions , which absorbed the main achievements and prospects of educational psychology. At the same time, in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov was developed developmental learning theory, which arose in the 70s. based general theory educational activities (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankova.
In the period 40-50s. S.L. Rubinstein in “Fundamentals of Psychology” (Rubinstein S.L., 1999; abstract) gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge, which was developed in detail from different positions by L.B. Itelson, E.N. Kabanova-Meller and others, as well as N.A. Menchinskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlensky in the concept of exteriorization of knowledge. Appeared in the mid-70s. the book by I. Lingart “The Process and Structure of Human Learning” () and the book by I.I. Ilyasov “The structure of the learning process” (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract) made it possible to make broad generalizations in this area.
The emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology deserves attention - suggestopedia, suggestology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher’s control of the student’s unconscious mental processes of perception, memory using the effect of hypermnesia and Suggestion (from the Latin suggestio - suggestion) - 1) influence on the individual, leading either to the appearance in a person, against his will and consciousness, of a certain state, feeling, attitude, or the commission by a person of an act that does not directly follow from the norms and principles of activity accepted by him. The object of suggestion can be either an individual person or groups, collectives, social strata (mass suggestion); 2) the process of influencing the mental sphere of a person, associated with a decrease in consciousness and criticality in the perception and implementation of suggested content, with the absence of a targeted active understanding of it, a detailed logical analysis and assessment in relation to past experience and the given state of the subject. The content of consciousness, acquired through the mechanism of suggestion, is subsequently characterized by an obsessive character; it is difficult to comprehend and correct, representing a set of "onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">suggestions. On this basis, methods have been developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G.A. Kitaigorodskaya) , group cohesion, group dynamics in the process of such learning (A.V. Petrovsky, L.A. Karpenko).
In the 50-70s. At the intersection of social and educational psychology, many studies were carried out on the structure of the children's team, the status of the child among his peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of ​​research relates to the issues of training and raising difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in some informal associations (D.I. Feldshtein).

• During the same period, there were trends towards the formulation of complex problems - educational training and educational upbringing. Actively being studied:
  • psychological and pedagogical factors of children's readiness for schooling;
  • content and organization primary education(L.A. Wenger, V.V. Davydov, etc.);
  • psychological reasons for schoolchildren’s academic failure (N.A. Menchinskaya);
  • psychological and pedagogical criteria for teaching effectiveness (I.S. Yakimanskaya).

• Since the late 70s. XX century work intensified in the scientific and practical direction - the creation of a psychological service at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of educational psychology have emerged:
  • development of conceptual approaches to the activities of psychological services,
  • equipping it with diagnostic tools,
  • training of practical psychologists.

(; see laboratory of scientific foundations of practical child psychology PI RAO).

All the diversity of these theories, however, had one common point - the theoretical justification of the most adequate, from the authors' point of view, to the requirements of society, the system of education - teaching (educational activity). Accordingly, certain areas of study were formed. Within the framework of these areas of training, its common problems have also emerged: activation of forms of training, pedagogical cooperation, communication, management of knowledge acquisition, development of students as the goal of training, etc.

Etc.) etc.

Thus, at this stage of development, educational psychology becomes more and more voluminous.
So, educational psychology- is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process. In general, we can say that educational psychology studies psychological issues of managing the pedagogical process, studies learning processes, the formation of cognitive processes, etc.
There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development, the relationship between training and education, taking into account Sensitive periods of mental development - periods of ontogenetic development during which the developing organism is especially sensitive to certain types of influences from the surrounding reality.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> sensitive periods of development in teaching; work with Gifted children are children who display one or another special or general giftedness. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> gifted children, the problem of children's readiness for school, etc.
Consequently, the general task of educational psychology- the science of facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> educational psychology is the identification, study and description of psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. This determines the structure of this branch of psychology: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education, the psychology of teachers.

Summary

• The term "educational psychology" is used to refer to two sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education. Under the same name “educational psychology”, applied science is also developing, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, the applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.
  • Educational psychology is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process.
  • Educational psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge that has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become a field of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations.
• There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development; the relationship between training and education; taking into account sensitive periods of development in learning; working with gifted children; readiness of children for schooling, etc.
  • The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process.
  • The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections: psychology of learning; psychology of education; teacher psychology.
• There are three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A.):
  • The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).
  • The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century, when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.
  • The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.
• Pedology (from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science; lit. - the science of children) is a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied industries psychology and experimental pedagogy

Glossary of terms

1. upbringing
2. didactics
3. education
4. pedagogy
5. pedagogical psychology
6. pedology
7. psyche
8. mental development
9. psychology
10. development
11. sensitive periods of development
12. doctrine

Self-test questions

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?
2. Indicate the features of historical changes in the subject of educational psychology.
3. What is the essence of biogenetic and sociogenetic directions in the development of educational psychology?
4. Name the main tasks of educational psychology.
5. How is the unity of developmental psychology and educational psychology manifested in the system of psychological knowledge about the child?
6. What are the main areas of action of educational psychology and pedagogy?
7. Name the main branches of educational psychology.
8. Describe the main problems of educational psychology.
9. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between development and learning?
10. Expand the applied aspect for pedagogical practice in solving the problem of identifying sensitive periods in development.
11. What approaches to solving the problem of children’s readiness for school exist in national science and practice?
12. What is the problem of optimal psychological preparation of teachers and educators?
13. Name the main stages in the development of educational psychology.
14. What is characteristic of each stage of development of educational psychology?
15. What are the features of pedology as a science?
16. What basic research has been carried out since the 30s? XIX century in the field of procedural aspects of training and education?
17. What fundamentally new direction arose in educational psychology in the 60-70s. XX century?

Bibliography

1. Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. St. Petersburg, 2001.
2. Ananyev B.G. Pedagogical applications of modern psychology // Soviet pedagogy. 1954. No. 8.
3. Biological and social in human development / Ed. ed. B.F. Lomova. M., 1977 ....
4. Branches of educational psychology.
5. Basic problems of educational psychology.
6. Basic approaches in domestic science and practice to solving the problem of children's readiness for school.
7. The relationship between developmental psychology and educational psychology in the system of psychological knowledge about the child.
8. Pedology as a comprehensive science about the child.
9. Suggestopedia as a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology.

Education- activities that ensure the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Learning is always a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student. The psychological side of learning is expressed in the structure of learning, its mechanisms, as a special specific activity; in the psychological characteristics of the personality of the student and teacher; in the psychological foundations of methods, methods and forms of teaching.

Education and development.

There are three views on the relationship between these processes

1) J. Piaget (according to the level of development of mental operations): Development must go ahead of learning, first we develop thinking, then the child solves the problem.

2) Gestalt psychology: Learning is parallel to development, begins at the same time, ends at the same time.

3) L.S. Vygotsky

Zone of actual development (ZAD) - the volume of actions and operations that a child can perform independently, using his existing level of mental development.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a level of actions and operations that a child can perform only with the help of an adult who, through special training, promotes the child’s mental development.

Psychology of learning- This scientific direction, exploring the psychological patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, psychological mechanisms of learning and educational activities, age-related changes caused by the learning process.

The main practical goal of educational psychology is aimed at finding opportunities to manage the learning process. At the same time, learning is considered as a specific activity, including motives, goals and learning activities. Ultimately, it should lead to the formation of new psychological formations and the properties of a full-fledged personality. Teaching - universal activity, because it forms the basis for mastering any other activity. The central task of educational psychology is the analysis and development of requirements for educational activities carried out by the student in the pedagogical process. It is specified in a complex of more specific tasks:

Identifying the connection between learning and mental development and developing measures to optimize the pedagogical impacts of the process;

Identification of general social factors of pedagogical influence that influence the mental development of the child;

System-structural analysis of the pedagogical process;

Disclosure of the peculiarities of the nature of individual manifestations of mental development, determined by the characteristics of educational activities.

Educational activities are structural and systemic in nature. A system is the unity of components and their relationships. The structure includes:

" 1. Components of an activity, without which it is not feasible. These include the tasks and goals of the activity; its subject, methods of decision-making and implementation; actions of monitoring and evaluating activities.

" 2. Relationships between the specified components. Impacts, operations, elements can be interconnected functional organization, operational display systems, etc.

" 3. Dynamics of establishing these relationships. Depending on the regularity of activation of connections, symptom complexes of mental processes and functionally important properties are formed.

All structural elements are connected by numerous connections. Elements of a structure are its conditionally indivisible parts. Any structure ensures the implementation of some functional property for the sake of which it was actually created, i.e. its main function (for example, the education system is created to implement the learning function). A function is the process of achieving a certain result.

The combination of structure and function results in the formation of a system. Main characteristics of the system:

1) it is something whole;

2) is functional in nature;

3) differentiates into a number of elements with certain properties;

4) individual elements interact in the process of performing a certain function;

5) the properties of the system are not equal to the properties of its elements.

6) has an information and energy connection with the environment;

7) the system is adaptive, changes the nature of its functioning depending on information about the results obtained;

8) different systems can give the same result.

From the perspective systematic approach individual mental components (including functions and processes) in activity appear in the form of a holistic formation, organized in terms of performing the functions of a specific activity (i.e. achieving a goal), i.e. in the shape of psychological system activities (PSD). PSD is an integral unity of the mental properties of the subject and their comprehensive connections. The educational process in all its manifestations is implemented exclusively by the PDS. Within its framework, restructuring is taking place individual qualities personality through their construction, restructuring, based on motives, goals, and conditions of activity. This is actually how the accumulation of individual experience, the formation of knowledge and the development of the student’s personality arise.

Psychological components of training

As a systemic organization educational activities has relatively stable (“static”) components and connections between them. Sustainable structural elements of educational activities:

Subject of study;

Student (subject of learning);

The actual educational activity (learning methods, educational activities);

Teacher (subject of learning).

Subject of study- this is knowledge, skills and abilities that need to be acquired.

Student- this is a person who is targeted for mastering knowledge, skills and abilities and who has certain prerequisites for such mastery.

Educational activities is a means by which new knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

Teacher- this is a person who performs controlling and regulating functions, ensuring coordination of the student’s activities until he is able to do it independently.

Stable components are connected to each other by connections, among which the main ones will be: motivational, emotional, cognitive, informational. The general orientation of educational activities is gnostic, subject-based.

All of the above elements must relate to each other in a harmonious unity. Only then will the system function with maximum efficiency. Any defect or loss of any component leads to deformation, destruction or collapse of the entire system. It turns out to be unable to perform its main function - teaching.

Compared to other types of activities, educational activities have their own specifics. The traditional scheme “subject - activity itself - object - result” looks like this:

If the “object” is the student’s personality (“L” (person) of the student), then the scheme takes on a fundamentally different coloring. The main, active force in ordinary activities is the “subject”. In educational activities, activity comes from both the “subject” (teacher) and the “P - person” (student).

All the main components of activity: motive, methods of activity, results begin to acquire a dual personal meaning, determined by the personality of the student and the personality of the teacher. The object of educational activity is the student’s holistic personality (“I”), i.e. complex psychosocial system. No less complex system is also the personality of the teacher. In the totality of their mutual influences on the subject of study, methods of teaching and the result, they form a supersystem of “learning activity”. It is known that the impact on some element of the system entails a change in the state of the entire system. With a complex combination of at least two personalities (teacher and student), the impact on various parts of the “learning activity” system is constant. Consequently, the system itself is constantly in active dynamic change. Teaching always entails a restructuring of both consciousness and the mental properties of the individuals participating in it.

Related information.

Psychologists have long recognized the fact that a person, as an active being, is capable of making conscious changes in his own personality, and therefore can engage in self-education. However, self-education cannot be realized outside environment, because occurs due to the active interaction of a person with the outside world. In the same way, natural data are the most important factor in human mental development. For example, anatomical and physical features represent natural conditions for the development of abilities in general. The formation of abilities is influenced by the conditions of life and activity, the conditions of education and training. However, this does not mean at all that the presence of the same conditions entails the same development of intellectual abilities. For example, one cannot ignore the fact that mental development is interconnected with biological age, especially when it comes to brain development. And this fact must be taken into account in educational activities.

Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky first put forward the idea that education and upbringing play a controlling role in mental development. According to this idea, education is ahead of development and guides it. If a person does not study, he cannot be fully developed. But education does not exclude from attention the internal laws of the development process. It is always necessary to remember that although learning has enormous opportunities, these opportunities are far from endless.

With the development of the psyche, stability, unity and integrity of the personality develop, as a result of which it begins to possess certain qualities. If a teacher takes into account the personal characteristics of a student in his teaching and educational activities, this gives him the opportunity to use pedagogical means and methods in his work that correspond to the age criteria and capabilities of the student. And here it is simply necessary to take into account individual characteristics, the degree of mental development of students, as well as the characteristics of psychological work.

The degree of mental development is indicated by what is happening in a person’s consciousness. Psychologists have characterized mental development and indicated its criteria:

• The speed at which the student learns the material
• The pace at which the student perceives the material
• The number of thoughts as an indicator of the conciseness of thinking
• Degree of analytical and synthetic activity
• Techniques by which mental activity is transferred
• Ability to independently systematize and generalize acquired knowledge

The learning process must be structured in such a way that there is maximum benefit for the student’s mental development. Research in the psychological field allows us to conclude that, along with a system of knowledge, it is necessary to give a set of techniques for mental activity. The teacher, while organizing the presentation of educational material, must also form mental operations in students, such as synthesis, generalization, abstraction, comparison, analysis, etc. Of greatest importance is the formation in students of the skill of systematization and generalization of knowledge, independent work with sources of information, comparing facts on each specific topic.

If we talk about children of the primary school age group, their development has its own characteristics. For example, it is during this period that priority should be placed on the development of scientific and creative abilities, because learning should be not only a source of knowledge, but also a guarantor of mental growth. And if we talk about students, the main focus of their scientific and creative abilities requires that the teacher have sufficient teaching experience and scientific and creative potential. This is due to the fact that in order to increase the mental activity of students, it is necessary to organize classes with the aim of training highly qualified specialists who have high intellectual potential, and who are also the support of society and its successors.

One of the factors that can improve the quality of the pedagogical process is the correspondence of educational methods and specific pedagogical conditions- this is the only way to achieve proper assimilation of new knowledge and cooperation in the educational process between teacher and student.

Developing the creative potential of students, it is important Special attention pay attention to organizing classes. And here the teacher’s talent and skill lies in the use of innovative educational technologies and a creative approach to the material being studied during lessons. This will help increase mental activity and expand the boundaries of thinking.

Educational institutions face the most important task - to implement the education of the younger generation, which will meet the requirements of modernity and scientific and technological progress, as well as to equip students with independent basic knowledge and the foundations of current disciplines, to awaken skills, abilities and knowledge and prepare them for conscious choice profession and active social and labor activities. In order for this goal to be achieved, it is necessary to achieve a conscious assimilation of the motives of education and to form in students a positive attitude and interest in the subject being studied.

From a psychological point of view, motives here are the reasons why students perform certain actions. Motives are shaped by demands, instincts, interests, ideas, decisions, emotions and predispositions. Motives for learning can be different, for example: to meet the requirements of parents and justify their hopes, the desire to develop with peers, receive a certificate or gold medal, go to university, etc. However, the highest motives are the desire to acquire knowledge in order to be useful to society, and the desire to know a lot.

The task of the teacher is to develop precisely high, one might say, spiritual motives in students - to cultivate faith in the need to acquire knowledge in order to bring social benefit, and to cultivate an attitude towards knowledge as a value. If it is possible to form such a motive in students and instill in them an interest in acquiring knowledge, then all learning will be much more effective. Such outstanding teachers as J. Komensky, B. Disterweg, K. Ushinsky, G. Shchukina, A. Kovalev, V. Ivanov, S. Rubinshtein, L. Bazhovich, V. Ananyev and others spoke and wrote on the topic of interest in knowledge. . Interest in knowledge contributes to intellectual activity, increased perception, vividness of thought, etc. In addition, it cultivates the strong-willed and spiritual component of the personality.

If the teacher manages to awaken interest in his discipline, then the student receives additional motivation, desires to gain knowledge and overcome obstacles in the process of obtaining it. He will be happy to work independently, devoting his time to the subject. free time. If there is no interest in the subject, then the material does not leave any trace in the student’s mind, does not evoke positive emotions and is quickly forgotten. In this case, the student himself remains indifferent and indifferent to the process.

As it is easy to see, the main focus in pedagogical and educational activities is precisely to create in the student, which includes interest, a thirst for knowledge, and a desire to develop and learn new things, master new skills, etc. Motivation should be encouraged and supported in every possible way by the teacher, and in many ways this is what determines the success and effectiveness of both pedagogical work (teaching) and the work of students (study).

And with the development of motivation, the conditions of the educational process matter, which should include not only a suitable form of presenting information, but also various shapes activities: hypothesizing, mental modeling, observations, etc. Among other things, the personality of the teacher is also of great importance: a teacher who respects and loves the discipline he teaches always commands respect and attracts the attention of students, and his personal qualities and behavior during class will directly influence how students feel about class.

In addition to this, you can use not only traditional teaching methods that are familiar to all of us, but also more modern ones, which have not yet had time to set their teeth on edge and have either been introduced into educational activities not very long ago, or are just beginning to be introduced. But we will talk about teaching methods later in our course, but for now we will conclude that any teacher who sets himself the goal of improving the quality of his work and making it more effective must certainly be guided by basic psychological knowledge.

In fact, we can talk about this topic for a very, very long time, but we only tried to make sure that you have a clear idea of ​​how pedagogy is related to psychology, and why you should know about it. You can find a huge amount of information on the topic of educational psychology on your own on the Internet, and on the topic of psychology in general, we suggest you take our specialized training (it is located). Now it would be more logical to continue the conversation on the topic of achieving learning effectiveness, namely: we will talk about what principles should be followed so that the learning and development of a person - your child, pupil or student - gives maximum results. The information will also be useful to those involved.

10 principles of effective training and development

Any teaching principles depend on the goals that the teacher sets for himself. He can, for example, develop his student, expand his stock of general knowledge, promote knowledge of the phenomena of the surrounding world, create the most suitable conditions for his development, etc. But it is very important to remember that there is no universal “recipe” according to which any person can become developed and intelligent, but there are several principles that will help a teacher become a really good teacher and maximize the effectiveness of his activities.

Principle One - Make sure that training and development is necessary

First of all, you need to conduct an accurate analysis of the skills and abilities of students and determine that there really is a need for training (applies mainly to university graduates, people who want to improve their skills, undergo retraining, etc.). You also need to make sure that the need or problem is a training issue. For example, if a student does not fulfill the requirements of the educational process, it is necessary to find out whether he is provided with the conditions for this, whether he himself understands what is required of him. In addition to this, an analysis of abilities, skills, knowledge, and other personality characteristics should be carried out. This will help to better understand in what direction the educational process should be directed. In a school setting, this can help determine a student’s aptitudes and predispositions for certain subjects.

The second principle is to create conditions conducive to learning and development

It is necessary to provide students with information that it is necessary to acquire new knowledge, acquire new skills and develop, and why this is necessary. Then you need to make sure that students understand the connection between receiving education and its subsequent practical application in life. The effectiveness of learning increases many times over if students understand the relationship between their learning and the opportunity to be useful to society as a whole and to themselves personally. Successful completion of academic tasks can be encouraged through recognition of progress, good grades and positive feedback. This way, students will be even more motivated.

The third principle is to provide exactly the kind of training and development that will be useful in practice

It is necessary to introduce into the pedagogical process such subjects and disciplines (knowledge, abilities and skills) that will not represent ephemeral usefulness in the minds of students, but have a specific practical significance. What students learn, they will have to apply in their lives. Without the relationship between theory and practice, learning loses not only its effectiveness, but also ceases to motivate, which means that the functions necessary for students to perform will be performed only formally, and the results will be mediocre, which completely contradicts the goals of education.

Principle four - include measurable objectives and specific results in training and development

The results of learning and development must be reflected in the activities of students, which is why the pedagogical process is necessary. It is important to ensure that the content of the training will lead students to comprehend the knowledge and acquire the skills that correspond to the learning objectives. Students should be notified about this, which means they will know what to expect from their training. Additionally, they will know how what they learn is applied. The educational process must be divided into stages, each stage must pursue its own independent goal. Testing the acquisition of knowledge and skills should be carried out at each stage - these can be tests, test papers, exams, etc.

Principle five - explain to students what the learning process will consist of

Students should know before starting their studies what will be included in the educational process, as well as what is expected of them, both during and after their studies. This way, they will be able to concentrate on studying, studying the material and completing assignments without experiencing any discomfort or discomfort.

Principle six - convey to students that they are responsible for their learning

Any teacher must be able to convey to students the information that, first of all, they are responsible for their education. If they understand and accept this, then their attitude to learning will be serious and responsible. Preliminary conversations and preparation of assignments, active participation of students in discussions and practical exercises, the use of new and non-standard solutions in the pedagogical process are encouraged, and students here also have the right to vote - they themselves can propose and choose the most convenient way of teaching, lesson plan, etc. .d.

Principle seven - use all pedagogical tools

Every teacher should be able to operate the basic pedagogical tools. Among them are those that are associated with the actions of the teacher, and those that are associated with the interaction between the teacher and students. We are talking about the teacher’s use of diversity - as a way to constantly maintain attention and interest, clarity - as a way to competently present confusing and incomprehensible information, involvement - as a way to attract students to active activities, support - as a way to give students confidence in their strengths and the ability to learn new things , and respectful attitude - as a way to shape students.

Principle eight - use more visual material

It is known for certain that 80% of information enters the brain from visual objects, and the teacher must take this into account in his work. For this reason, it is necessary to use as much as possible of what students can see with their own eyes, and not just read. Sources of visual information can be posters, diagrams, maps, tables, photographs, video materials. For the same reason, in all classes and auditoriums there are always boards for writing with chalk or marker - even the simplest data is always written down. And most effective method visual learning are experiences and practical laboratory works.

Principle nine - convey the essence first, and then the details

We have already mentioned this principle several times when we talked about the didactic work of Jan Komensky, but mentioning it again will only be beneficial. Teaching involves studying huge amounts of data, so you can’t convey everything to students at once. Large topics should be divided into subtopics, and subtopics, if necessary, into smaller subtopics. First, you should explain the essence of any subject or problem, and only then move on to discussing details and features. In addition, the human brain initially grasps the meaning of what it perceives, and only then begins to discern details. The pedagogical process must correspond to this natural feature.

Principle ten - do not overload with information and give time to rest

This principle is partly related to the previous one, but to a greater extent it is based on the fact that the human body should always have time to “recharge”. Even the most hardworking people understand the value of rest and good sleep. Learning is a complex process and is associated with high nervous and mental stress, increased attention and concentration, and maximum use of the brain's potential. Overwork is unacceptable in training, otherwise stress may overwhelm the student, he will become irritable, and his attention will be scattered - there will be no sense in such an apprenticeship. According to this principle, students should receive as much information as their age allows, and always have time to relax. As for sleep, it’s 8 hours at a time, so it’s better not to allow night vigils over textbooks.

With this, we will summarize the third lesson, and we will only say that students must learn to learn, and teachers must learn to teach, and understanding the psychological characteristics of the educational process can significantly increase the chances of success for both teachers themselves and their students.

Surely you want to quickly find out what educational methods exist, because there is already plenty of theory, but incomparably less practice. But don't despair, the next lesson is dedicated to traditional teaching methods - exactly those practical methods, which have already been tested by many teachers and seasoned over the years, methods that you can put into practice.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

Training is an active, purposeful process of transferring to the student the sociocultural experience of previous generations and organizing the development of this experience, as well as the opportunity and readiness to apply this experience in different situations.

Structure.

Traditionally, educational psychology is considered in three sections: psychology of learning, psychology of education, teacher psychology.

Education is a purposeful influence on a person in order to form certain value orientations, principles of behavior, assessment systems, attitudes towards oneself, towards other people, towards work, society, towards the world.

1. Subject of educational psychology - development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic training.

The psychology of learning studies, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities.

Learning is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process.

2. Subject of educational psychology - development of personality in the conditions of purposeful organization of the activities of the child and the children's team. Educational psychology studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of worldviews, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

3. Subject of teacher psychology - psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality characteristics that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

· determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

· studying the emotional stability of a teacher;

· identification of positive features individual style communication between teacher and student and a number of others.

167. Connection of educational psychology with other sciences.

Developmental psychology studies the development of the human psyche in ontogenesis, its features at different stages, and educational psychology studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education.

Educational psychology is related to other sciences:

Firstly, because it is a branch of general psychological knowledge

Secondly, because the educational process, in its goals and content, is the transfer of sociocultural experience, which contains the most diverse knowledge in symbolic and linguistic form.

Thirdly, because the object of study is the person who knows and learns this knowledge.

168. Tasks and problems of educational psychology.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology:

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of educational psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development. What does he think? modern science, it is almost impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education and, therefore, what is given genetically cannot be re-educated. On the other hand, training and education in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the genotype itself and do not affect organic processes. In Russian psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 30s. XX century He substantiated the leading role of training in development, noting that training should go ahead of development and be a source of new development.

2. The problem of the relationship between training and education. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of teaching and upbringing in their unity represent a pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of personality. In essence, both occur through the interaction of teacher and student, educator and pupil, adult and child, located in certain living conditions, in a certain environment.

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. Sensitive periods in psychology are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain types of influences from the surrounding reality. For example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. Starting learning something too early can have an adverse effect on mental development, just as starting it too late can be ineffective. The difficulty of the problem under consideration is that all sensitive periods of development of the child’s intellect and personality, their beginning, duration and completion are not known.

4. The problem of children's giftedness. General talent refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are “children who display one or another special or general giftedness.”

5. The problem of children's readiness for school. The readiness of children to study at school is “the totality of the morphological and psychological characteristics of the older child preschool age ensuring a successful transition to systematic, organized schooling."

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term “readiness for schooling,” the term “school maturity” is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one more reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation.

Solving the above and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator to have high professional qualifications, a significant part of which is psychological knowledge, skills and abilities.

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are:

· disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

· determination of mechanisms and patterns of student’s mastering sociocultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the student’s individual consciousness and use in various situations;

· determining the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.);

· determination of the features of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

· studying the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity;

· determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific and theoretical thinking;

· determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for assimilation of knowledge, formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

· development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels educational system and etc.

Age is characterized not by the relationship of individual mental functions, but by those specific tasks of mastering aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a series principles of developmental psychology

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent ages.

Each age has its own development reserves, which can be mobilized during the development of a child’s specially organized activity in relation to the surrounding reality and to his activities.

The characteristics of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc.

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance when creating a psychological theory of assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, based on them, the following principles of educational psychology can be identified (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

Education is based on data from developmental psychology about age reserves, focusing on the “tomorrow” of development.

Education is organized taking into account the existing individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

Learning cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the practice of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student’s personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

169. The influence of basic psychological theories on the formation and development of educational psychology.

Educational psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about man, which were recorded in the main psychological movements (theories) that have had and continue to have a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period. This is due to the fact that the learning process has always acted as a natural research “testing ground” for psychological theories. Let us take a closer look at the psychological movements and theories that could influence the understanding of the pedagogical process.

Associative psychology(starting from the middle of the 18th century - D. Hartley and until the end of the 19th century - W. Wundt), in the depths of which the types and mechanisms of associations were defined as connections between mental processes and associations as the basis of the psyche. Using the material from the study of associations, the features of memory and learning were studied. Here we note that the foundations of the associative interpretation of the psyche were laid by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is credited with introducing the concept of “association”, its types, distinguishing two types of reason (nous) into theoretical and practical, definitions feelings of satisfaction as a learning factor.

Empirical data from experiments G. Ebbinghaus (1885) on the study of the process of forgetting and the forgetting curve he obtained, the nature of which is taken into account by all subsequent researchers of memory, development of skills, organization of exercises.

Pragmatic functional psychology W. James (late 19th - early 20th century) and J. Dewey (practically the entire first half of our century) with an emphasis on adaptive reactions, adaptation to the environment, body activity, and skill development.

Trial and error theory E. Thorndike (late 19th - early 20th centuries), who formulated the basic laws of learning - the laws of exercise, effect and readiness; who described the learning curve and achievement tests based on these data (1904).

Behaviorism J. Watson (1912 -1920) And neobehaviorism E. Tolman, K. Hull, A. Ghazri and B. Skinner (first half of our century). V. Skinner already in the middle of this century developed the concept of operant behavior and the practice of programmed training. The merit of the works of E. Thorndike, orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson and the entire neo-behaviourist movement that preceded behaviorism is the development of a holistic concept of learning, including its patterns, facts, mechanisms.

Research by F. Galton (late 19th century) in the field measurements of sensorimotor functions, which laid the foundation for testing (F. Galton was the first to use questionnaires and rating scales); use of mathematical statistics; “mental tests” by J. Cattell, which, as A. Anastasi notes, were considered a typical research method of that time. Intellectual tests by A. Wiene and T. Simon (1904-1911) with a variation of individual and group testing, in which the intellectual development coefficient was first used as the ratio of mental age to actual age (L. Theremin in America in 1916). It is significant that F. Galton began his first (1884) measurements in the education system, J. Cattell (1890) tested college students in America, the first Binet-Simon scale (1905) was created in France on the initiative of the Ministry of Education. This indicates a fairly long-standing close relationship between psychological research and education.

Psychoanalysis 3. Freud, A. Adler, K. Jung, E. Fromm, E. Erikson (from the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century), developing the categories of the unconscious, psychological defense, complexes, stages of development of the “I”, freedom , extroversion-introversion. (The latter finds the widest application and distribution in many pedagogical studies thanks to the G. Eysenck test.)

Gestalt psychology(M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka - early XIX c.), concept dynamic system behavior or field theory by K. Lewin, genetic epistemology or the concept of staged development of intelligence by J. Piaget, which contributed to the formation of the concepts of insight, motivation, stages of intellectual development, internalization (which was also developed by French sociological psychologists A. Vallon, P. Janet) .

Operational concept J. Piaget, starting from the 20s of our century, has become one of the main world theories of the development of intelligence and thinking. In the context of this concept, the concepts of socialization, centering-decentration, specificity of adaptation, reversibility of actions, stage of intellectual development are developed. It should be noted that in the science of the 20th century. J. Piaget entered primarily as one of the most prominent representatives of the “synthetic approach to the study of the psyche.”

Cognitive psychology 60-80s of our century G.U. Neisser, M. Broadbent, D. Norman, J. Bruner and others, who focused on knowledge, awareness, organization of semantic memory, forecasting, reception and processing of information, reading and comprehension processes, cognitive styles.

Humanistic psychology of the 60-90s of our century by A. Maslow, K. Rogers, which put forward the concept of “client-centered” therapy, the category of self-actualization, the pyramid (hierarchy) of human needs, facilitation (relief and activation), which formed a student-centered humanistic approach to training.

Big influence The development of educational psychology was influenced by the works of domestic thinkers, teachers, naturalists - I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, K.D. Ushinsky, A.F. Lazursky, P.F. Lesgaft, L.S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky and others. The basis of almost all domestic pedagogical concepts was educational anthropology K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). It affirmed the educational nature of learning, the active (active) nature of man. K.D. Ushinsky is responsible for the development of content categories and teaching methods.

Cultural-historical theory L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) - the theory of the development of the psyche, conceptual thinking, speech, the connection between learning and development, where the first should anticipate and lead the second, the concept of levels of development, “zones of proximal development" and many other fundamental provisions to varying degrees completeness formed the basis of psychological and pedagogical concepts of recent decades. Concept of activity of M.Ya. Basov, theory of activity by A.N. Leontyev, general methodological development of the category of activity itself (especially in terms of subjectivity) S.L. Rubinstein, a general integrative approach to the psyche, determining the specifics of its development during adulthood, identifying a special age period - student age B.G. Ananyev and others had an undoubted influence on the psychological and pedagogical understanding of the educational process and the development of educational psychology.

Formed in Russian psychology in the middle of the current century theories, concepts, interpretation of teaching, educational activities(D.N. Bogoyavlensky, G.S. Kostyuk, N.A. Menchinskaya, P.A. Shevarev, Z.I. Kalmykova, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, D.B. Elkonin, V V. Davydov, A. K. Markova, L. I. Aidarova, L. V. Zankov, L. N. Landa, G. G. Granik, A. A. Lyublinskaya, I. V. Kuzmina, etc.) made an invaluable contribution not only to the understanding of teaching practice, but also to educational psychology as a science developed both in our country and in other countries (I. Lingart, J. Lompscher, etc.).

The development of educational psychology was greatly influenced by the identification specific mechanisms for mastering educational material students (S.L. Rubinshtein, E.N. Kabanova-Meller, L.B. Itelson); memory research(P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov, V.Ya. Lyaudis), thinking (F.N. Shemyakin, A.M. Matyushkin, V.N. Pushkin, L.L. Gurova), perception (V.P. Zinchenko, Yu.B. Gippenreiter), child development and in particular, speech development(M. I. Lisina, L. A. Wenger, A. G. Ruzskaya, F. A. Sokhin, T. N. Ushakova), personality development(B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, M.S. Neimark, V.S. Mukhina), verbal communication and speech training(V.A. Artemov, N.I. Zhinkin, A.A. Leontyev, V.A. Kan-Kalik); definition of stages(eras, epochs, phases, periods) age development(P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, B.G. Ananyev, A.V. Petrovsky), mental characteristics schoolchildren's activities and their mental talent (A.A. Bodalev, N.S. Leites, N.D. Levitov, V.A. Krutetsky). Great importance for educational psychology had work on psychology of adult learning(Yu.N. Kulyutkin, L.N. Lesokhina), etc.

170. Research methods in educational psychology: observation, experiment, formative and ascertaining experiment.

Observation- basic, most common in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method study of man. Observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study.

Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, surveillance maps, etc.).

The main features of the observation method are:

· direct connection between the observer and the observed object;

· bias (emotional coloring) of observation;

· difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.

There are several types of observations.

Depending on the position of the observer, open and hidden observation are distinguished. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Covert observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subject.

Further, continuous and selective observation are distinguished. The first covers processes in their entirety: from their beginning to the end, to completion. The second is a selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, observing these events from the side, in order to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teacher and student.

Conversation - a widespread empirical method in educational psychology of obtaining information (information) about a student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. A dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies psychological characteristics another is called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. Suffice it to say Piaget. In conversations, dialogues, discussions, the attitudes of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Researchers of all times in conversations received information that was impossible to obtain in any other way. Psychological-pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate inner world subjects of the educational process, to identify the reasons for certain actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitude to the problems of interest to the researcher is also obtained through conversations. But conversations are a very complex and not always reliable method. Therefore, it is used most often as an additional one - to obtain the necessary clarifications and clarifications. To increase the reliability of the results of the conversation and remove the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures should be used. These include:

· the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the student’s personality and steadily implemented;

· discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections of school life;

· varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;

· ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers.

Questioning - a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. However, as recent studies show the effectiveness this method, these expectations are met by about half. Teachers and psychologists were attracted to the survey by the possibility of quick mass surveys of students, teachers, and parents, the low cost of the methodology, and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in psychological and pedagogical research:

open, requiring independent construction of an answer;

closed, in which students have to choose one of ready-made answers;

personal, requiring the subject's surname to be indicated;

anonymous, doing without it, etc.

When drawing up the questionnaire, the following are taken into account: the content of the questions; form of questions - open or closed; wording of questions (clarity, without prompting answers, etc.);

number and order of questions.

Questioning can be oral, written, individual, or group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

Test method. Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology - a test fixed in time, designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences. The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.

Testing differs from other methods of examination: accuracy; simplicity; accessibility; opportunity

automation.

If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we will point out, first of all, the use of achievement tests. Tests of skills such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge and skills in all academic subjects are widely used.

Experiment - one of the main (along with observation) methods scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher. A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses in cause-and-effect relationships, not limiting yourself to stating the relationship between variables. There are traditional and factorial experimental designs. With traditional planning, only one independent variable changes, with factorial planning - several. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other.

The experimental procedure consists of purposefully creating or selecting conditions that ensure reliable isolation of the factor being studied, and recording changes associated with its influence. Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: an experimental group, in which the factor being studied is included, and a control group, in which it is absent. The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. For example, by changing the conditions for memorizing this or that educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate.

Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ:

According to the form of conduct, there are two main types of experiments - laboratory and natural.

A laboratory experiment is carried out in specially organized artificial conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. A laboratory experiment allows, with the help of recording instruments, to accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of a person’s reaction, the speed of formation of educational and work skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions.

Natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910 by A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions as part of an activity that is familiar to the subjects, such as training sessions or games. Often the situation created by the experimenter may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; in this case, a positive factor for the study is the complete naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing teaching methods, school equipment, daily routine, etc.), an experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves become participants in its creation. Such research requires particularly careful planning and preparation.

Based on the number of variables studied, univariate and multivariate experiments are distinguished.

A univariate experiment involves identifying one dependent and one independent variable in the study. It is most often implemented in a laboratory experiment.

Multidimensional experiment. A natural experiment affirms the idea of ​​studying phenomena not in isolation, but in their interconnection and interdependence. Therefore, a multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires the simultaneous measurement of many related characteristics, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of connections between many studied characteristics, identification of the structure of these connections, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main goal of a multidimensional experiment.

results experimental research often do not represent an identified pattern, a stable dependence, but a series of more or less fully recorded empirical facts.

ANALYSIS OF ACTIVITY PRODUCTS- a method of indirect empirical study of a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of the material and ideal products of his activity. This method is widely used in pedagogical practice in the form of analysis of student essays, notes, etc. However, in the course of scientific research, the method of analyzing activity products presupposes a specific goal, hypothesis and methods of analyzing each specific product.

171. Factors, driving forces and patterns of personality development.

Personal development is the process of accumulation of quantitative and qualitative changes in the human body, social, anatomical-physiological, psychological plan

Factors:

Biological - heredity (uncontrollable) - the transmission to children from parents of certain qualities and characteristics (color of eyes, hair, skin, diseases, physiological parameters).

Mental abilities are not inherited, but inclinations are inherited, which, due to prevailing conditions, develop into abilities

Social - social environment (semi-managed) - reality and conditions in which the child grows up; social, material, economic environment, social order that create conditions for the development of the child; small social environment - relatives, classmates, who directly influence the formation of the child’s personality

Education factor -(fully controlled, leading, can have positive and negative results depending on the content of the goals, methods, means used in the family, school) - a purposeful, consciously carried out pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating the various activities of the emerging personality to master social experience, knowledge, practical skills, social and spiritual relationships, methods of creative activity.

A person becomes an individual in the process of development, in the social system, through thoughtful upbringing. Personality is determined by the measure of society’s appropriation of experience and the measure of return to society of its feasible contribution to material and spiritual values. A person must demonstrate in practice, reveal his inner properties, inherent in nature and formed in him by life and upbringing.

Personal development is a spontaneous, uncontrolled, spontaneous process. Development occurs regardless of living conditions. Driving force development - a struggle of contradictions - opposing principles colliding in a conflict. Internal and external, general (universal) contradictions driving the development of masses and individuals.

They arise under the influence of people’s needs, ranging from simple material to spiritual, and their satisfaction. The inner self arose as a result of “disagreement with oneself,” expressing the individual’s motives. Externally - stimulated by forces from outside, a person’s relationship with people, society, nature.

See question 131 ( age-related psychology)

172. Different points of view on the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

See question 127, + 131 (developmental psychology) - there is about Davydov’s developmental education system

The problem of the relationship between training and development has been and remains one of the core problems of psychology and pedagogy. Historically, there have been different points of view on this issue.

One of them was presented by the American scientist E. Thorndike and consisted of recognition of learning and development as identical processes. Each step of learning was considered a step in the student’s development. At the same time, E. Thorndike did not see the difference between human learning and animal learning and denied the role of consciousness in learning.

These views were shared by W. James, J. Watson, and K. Koffka, although they understood the nature of learning differently. They believed that all learning is developmental.

Another point of view expressed by the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, denying the connection between learning and development child. According to it, the development of a child is a consequence of internal, spontaneous self-change, on which training has no influence. According to J. Piaget, a child’s thinking inevitably goes through all known phases and stages, regardless of the learning process. Moreover, learning is determined by the level of human development. Education is only the external conditions of maturation and child development. This point of view was adhered to by A. Gesell, S. Freud, and others.

Another point of view, most recognized by Russian scientists, contains the following postulate: learning leads to development and must go ahead of it. It was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in his concept of the mental development of a child.

Education, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is the source of a child’s development. Under the influence of learning, a restructuring of all mental functions occurs.

When solving the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development, L. S. Vygotsky assigned the leading role to education. The process of child development, he believed, does not coincide with the learning process, but follows it. Developing this thesis, he identified two levels of child development: the level of his actual development and the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development is found in solving problems together with adults. It is training that should create the zone of proximal development. Such learning advances development, goes ahead of it, relying not only on mature functions, but also on those that are still maturing. In line with the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky was developed by domestic psychologists: S.L. Rubinshtein, B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, A.N. Leontiev, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Davydov and etc. The theoretical foundation they created was used by science and reflected in its basic concepts of teaching.

173. The concept of “zone of proximal development” L.S. Vygotsky, its theoretical and practical significance.

See question 127 (developmental psychology)

174. L.S. Vygotsky. Cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions.

See question 130 (developmental psychology)

175. Differences between the concepts: “teaching”, “training”, “teaching”, “educational activity.”

Teaching is defined as a person’s learning as a result of his purposeful, conscious appropriation of his transmitted (broadcast) sociocultural (socio-historical) experience and individual experience formed on this basis. Consequently, teaching is considered as a type of learning.

Learning differs from learning as the acquisition of experience in activities directed by cognitive motives or motives and goals. Through learning, any experience can be acquired - knowledge, abilities, skills (in humans) and new forms of behavior (in animals).

Education in the most common sense of this term means the purposeful, consistent transfer (broadcast) of sociocultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. In psychological and pedagogical terms, learning is considered as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating the student’s educational and cognitive activity.

In addition, the concepts of “learning” and “training” are equally applicable to both humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of “teaching”. In foreign psychology, the concept of “learning” is used as an equivalent to “teaching”. If “learning” and “teaching” denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term “learning” describes both the process itself and its result.

Scientists interpret the triad of concepts under consideration in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are like that.

A.K. Markova: considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills; interprets teaching from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring that students acquire knowledge and master the methods of acquiring knowledge; learning is represented as the student’s activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering methods of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).

Talyzina: adheres to the interpretation of the concept of “learning” that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept in question exclusively to animals; It considers teaching only as the activity of a teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching as the activity of a student included in the educational process.

Thus, psychological concepts“learning”, “training”, “teaching” cover a wide range of phenomena related to the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.

The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process occurs most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of learning, and in a person - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.

So, teaching/training/teaching is the process of a subject acquiring new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. The most general concept, denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth), is “learning”. Teaching a person as a result of his purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.

A rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy (see Fig. 1).

3. In the interpretation of the direction by D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov’s educational activity is one of the types of activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at their assimilation through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions of theoretical knowledge and related skills and abilities in such spheres of social consciousness as science, art, morality, law and religion

176. Educational activity: concept, characteristics, structure, formation of main components.

"Learning activity" (UD) - a rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy.

1. Sometimes UD is considered as a synonym for learning, teaching, teaching.

2. In “classical” Soviet psychology and pedagogy, UD is defined as the leading type of activity in the younger school age. It is understood as a special form of social activity, manifesting itself through objective and cognitive actions.

3. In the interpretation of the direction by D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov's educational activity is one of the types of activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at their mastering, through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions, theoretical knowledge and related skills in such spheres of social consciousness as science, art, morality, law and religion.