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PLAN.
I. Introduction.
II. Main part.
1. Definition of character.
2. Features of communication and behavior depending on the types of character accentuation.
3. Manifestation of character in human behavior and activity.
III. Conclusion.
Bibliography.
INTRODUCTION
Speaking about character, we usually mean those personality traits that leave a certain imprint on all its manifestations and express its specific attitude towards the world and, above all, towards other people. It is in this sense that we usually say that a person has a bad character or a good, noble, etc. We sometimes say in the same sense that such and such a person is characterless, wanting to say that he does not have such an inner core that would determine his behavior; his deeds do not bear the stamp of their creator. In other words, a spineless person is a person lacking inner certainty; Every action he performs depends more on external circumstances than on himself. Human with character, on the contrary, it stands out above all certainty his attitude to the environment, expressed in the certainty of his actions and actions; about a person with character, we know that in such and such circumstances he will act in such and such a way. Character determines the definiteness of a person as a subject of activity, who, standing out from the environment, relates to it in a specific way. To know a person’s character is to know those essential traits for him, from which it follows and by which the entire pattern of his actions is determined. Character traits are those significant properties of a person, from which one line of behavior, some actions, follows with a certain logic and internal consistency, and by which others are excluded as incompatible with them or contrary to them.
1. Definition of character.
Translated from Greek, “character” is “minting”, “sign”. Indeed, character is the special characteristics that a person acquires while living in society. Just as the individuality of a person is manifested in the peculiarities of the course of mental processes ( good memory, rich imagination, quick wit, etc.) and in temperamental traits, it reveals itself in character traits.
Character is a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, determining the individual’s typical modes of behavior.
Personality of a person ha characterized not only by what he does, but also by how he does it. Acting on the basis of common interests and shared beliefs, striving for common goals in life, people can discover in their O We eat social behavior, in our actions and deeds are not the same, p O swarm of opposing individual characteristics. You can, along with other people, experience the same difficulties, fulfill your tasks with equal success. I zest, to love or not to love the same thing, but at the same time be soft, mouthed P chivalrous or tough, intolerant person, cheerful or sad, confident n nimble or timid, accommodating or quarrelsome. Same meaning And tical remarks addressed to schoolchildren are always made by some teachers in a soft, polite, benevolent form, while by others - rudely and benignly. With ceremoniously. People with opposite views on life, with n e similar s our interests, with differences in cultural level, with unequal morals b Based on certain principles, these ingrained individual characteristics, such as A Typically, they are even more pronounced .
These individual characteristics that form a person’s character relate primarily to the will (for example, determination or uncertainty, fearfulness) and feelings (for example, cheerfulness or depression), but to a certain extent also to mind blowing(e.g. thoughtlessness or thoughtfulness). However, manifestations of character are complex formations and in some cases practically cannot be classified into categories of volitional, emotional or intellectual processes (for example, suspicion, generosity, generosity, rancor, etc.).
Character reveals dependence on social relations that determine the direction of a person’s personality. So, for example, in a society based on the exploitation of man by man, the social position of representatives of the ruling classes contributes to the consolidation in their character of arrogance, conceit, hypocrisy, greed, hypocrisy, etc. A different picture of the determination of character is inherent in a socialist society. Both during the years of peaceful labor and during the Great Patriotic War specific character qualities clearly emerged Soviet man: dedication, determination, courage, modesty, hard work emerged as the core character traits of people building and defending a socialist society.
The formation of character occurs under conditions of inclusion of the individual in social groups of various levels of development (in a family, a friendly company, a work or educational group, an asocial association, etc.). Depending on how the individual is individualized in his reference group and what the level of development is interpersonal relationships in it, a teenager, for example, can develop in one case openness, directness, courage, integrity, strength of character, in another case - secrecy, deceit, cowardice, conformity, weak character. In a team, as a group high level development, the most favorable opportunities for development and consolidation of the best are created character trait. This process promotes optimal integration of the individual in the team and further development the team itself.
Knowing a person’s character, one can predict how he will behave under certain circumstances, and, consequently, direct a person’s behavior. Based on the valuable character traits of the student, the teacher strives to develop and strengthen them, and to weaken the negative ones, or at least compensate them, replacing them with other, socially significant qualities.
2.
depending on the type of accessoryncharacter situations.
According to the famous German psychiatrist K. Leonhard, in 20-56% of people some character traits are so sharpened (accentuated) that under certain circumstances this leads to the same type of conflicts and nervous breakdowns. Accentuation of character is an exaggerated development of certain character traits to the detriment of others, as a result of which interaction with other people deteriorates. The severity of accentuation can vary - from mild, noticeable only to the immediate environment, to extreme variants, when you have to wonder if there is a disease - psychopathy. Psychopathy is a painful deformity of character (while maintaining a person’s intelligence), as a result, relationships with other people are sharply disrupted; psychopaths can even be socially dangerous to others.
But unlike psychopathy, character accentuations do not appear constantly; over the years they can significantly smooth out and approach the norm. Leonhard identifies 12 types of acceptance, each of which predetermines a person’s selective resistance to some life adversities, with increased sensitivity to others, to frequent conflicts of the same type, and to certain nervous breakdowns. In favorable conditions, when it is the weak links of the personality that are not affected, such a person can become extraordinary; for example, accentuation of character according to the so-called exalted type can contribute to the flowering of the talent of an artist, an artist.
Character accentuations are often found in adolescents and young men (50 - 80%). You can determine the type of accentuation or its absence using special psychological tests, for example the Schmisek test. Often you have to deal with accentuated personalities and it is important to know and anticipate the specific features of people’s behavior.
A brief description of behavioral features depending on the type of accentuation is given below.
Hyperthymic (hyperactive) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Excessively high spirits, always cheerful, talkative, very energetic, independent, strives for leadership, risks and adventures, does not respond to comments, ignores punishments, loses the edge of being immature, lacks self-criticism. It is necessary to be cautious about his unfounded optimism and overestimation of his capabilities. Energy is sometimes directed towards drinking alcohol, drugs, and promiscuous sex life.
Energy, thirst for activity, new things, optimism.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Frivolity, a tendency to immoral acts, a frivolous attitude towards responsibilities, irritability in the circle of close people.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Monotony, loneliness, conditions of strict discipline are contraindicated, constant moralizing can cause anger. There are often cases of manic-depressive psychosis.
Preferredactivity. Work related to constant communication: organizational activities, sales service, stort, theater. Tend to change professions and places of work.
Dysthymic type.
Features of communication and behavior. Constantly low mood, sadness, isolation, taciturnity, pessimism, are burdened by noisy society, and do not get along closely with colleagues. They rarely enter into conflicts; more often they are a passive party in them. They value those who are friends with them and are inclined to obey them.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Seriousness, high morality, integrity, justice.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Passivity, pessimism, sadness, slowness of thinking, “separation from the team.”
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Situations that require vigorous activity and a change in the usual lifestyle are contraindicated. Tendency to neurotic depression.
Preferredactivity. A job that does not require a wide range of communication.
Cycloid type.
Features of communication and behavior. Sociability changes cyclically (high during periods of elevated mood, and low during periods of depression)
During periods of rising mood, people manifest themselves as people with hyperthymic accentuation, and during periods of declining mood - with dysthymic accentuation. During the downfall, they perceive troubles more acutely, even to the point of committing suicide. There are cases of manic depressive psychosis
Preferredactivity. Interests depend on the mood cycle. They are prone to disappointment in the profession and change jobs.
Emotive (emotional) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Excessive sensitivity, vulnerability, deeply experience the slightest troubles, overly sensitive to comments, failures, so they are often in a sad mood. They prefer a narrow circle of friends and relatives who understand perfectly. They rarely enter into conflicts and play a passive role in them. Grievances are not expressed out.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Altruism, compassion, compassionate, rejoice in other people's successes. Executives with a high sense of duty. Good family men.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Extreme sensitivity and tearfulness May provoke attacks from ill-mannered or irritable people.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Conflicts with a loved one, death or illness of relatives are perceived tragically. Injustice, rudeness, and being surrounded by rude people are contraindicated. Prone to neurotic depression, heart attack, hypertension.
Preferredactivity. The arts, medicine, raising children, caring for animals and plants.
Demonstrative type.
Features of communication and behavior. There is an expressed desire to be in the center of attention and achieve one’s goals at any cost: tears, fainting, scandals, illnesses, boasting, outfits, unusual hobbies, lies. They easily forget about their unseemly deeds. Behavior depends on the person with whom he is dealing, high adaptability to people.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Courtesy, perseverance, focus, acting talent, the ability to captivate others, originality.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Selfishness, unbridled actions, deceit, boastfulness, shirking from work, a tendency to “get sick” at the most crucial and difficult moments. Tendency to intrigue, self-confidence and high claims. They provoke conflicts, while actively defending themselves.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Situations of infringement of interests, underestimation of merits, overthrow from the “pedestal” cause hysterical reactions. Tendency to hysteria. A closed circle of communication, monotonous work depress me.
Preferredactivity. Favorable to work with constantly changing short-term contacts
Excitable type.
Features of communication and behavior. Increased irritability, lack of restraint, aggressiveness, sullenness, “boringness,” but flattery and helpfulness are possible (as a disguise). Tendency to be rude and use obscene language or remain silent and slow in conversation. They actively and often conflict, do not avoid quarrels with their superiors, are difficult to get along with in teams, and are despotic and cruel in the family.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Outside of fits of anger - conscientiousness, accuracy, love for children.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Irritability, short temper, inappropriate outbursts of anger and rage with assault, cruelty; weakened control over desire.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Tendency to conflicts over minor issues, neurotic breakdowns, psychopathy, delinquency (immoral behavior, alcohol abuse, antisocial behavior.
Preferredactivity. Physical labor, athletic sports. Due to incompatibility, they often change jobs. It is necessary to develop self-control and self-control.
Stuck type.
Features of communication and behavior. “Stuck” on his feelings and thoughts, cannot forget grievances, “settles scores”, intractability at work and at home, a tendency to protracted squabbles, in conflicts they are more often an active party, the circle of enemies and friends is clearly defined. Shows lust for power - “boringness” moral teacher."
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. The desire to achieve high performance in any business, the manifestation of high demands on oneself, a thirst for justice, integrity, strong stable views.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Touchiness, suspicion, vindictiveness, ambition, arrogance, jealousy, a sense of justice inflated to the point of fanaticism.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Hurt pride, unfair resentment, an obstacle to achieving ambitious goals, a situation of jealousy can cause “delusions of persecution, jealousy.”
Preferredactivity. A job that gives you a sense of independence and the opportunity to express yourself. It is necessary to develop flexibility, even forgetfulness.
Pedantic type.
Features of communication and behavior. Pronounced tediousness in the form of “experiencing” details in the service can torture visitors with formal requirements, and exhaust family members with excessive neatness.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness, reliability in business and feelings, even mood.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Formalism, “cunning”, “boringness”, the desire to shift important decisions to others.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. A situation of personal responsibility for an important matter, underestimation of their merits; tendency to obsession, psychasthenia.
Preferredactivity. Professions that are not associated with great responsibility prefer “paper work” and are not inclined to change jobs.
Anxious (psychasthenic) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Low background mood, fears for oneself, loved ones, timidity, self-doubt, extreme indecisiveness, experiences failure for a long time, doubts one’s actions. Rarely enters into conflicts, plays a passive role.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Friendliness, self-criticism, diligence.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Fearfulness and suspiciousness, due to defenselessness, sometimes serve as a target for jokes, “scapegoats.”
Situations in whichconflict is possible. A situation of fear, threats, punishment, ridicule, and unfair accusations are contraindicated. Tendency to psychasthenia.
Preferredactivity. You cannot be a leader, make responsible decisions, because... He will endlessly weigh and worry, but will not be able to make a decision.
Exalted (labile) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Very changeable mood, clearly expressed emotions, increased distractibility to external events, talkativeness, falling in love.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Altruism, a sense of compassion, artistic taste, artistic talent, brightness of feelings, attached to friends.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Excessive impressionability, pathos, alarmism and susceptibility to despair.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Failures and sad events are perceived tragically. Tendency to neurotic depression
Preferredactivity. The field of arts, artistic sports. Professions related to closeness to nature.
Introverted (schizoid) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Low sociability, closed, aloof from everyone, communication out of necessity, self-absorbed, doesn’t say anything about himself, doesn’t reveal his experiences, although he is characterized by increased vulnerability. Treats other people with reserved coldness, even close ones. Behavior and logic are often incomprehensible to others. They love loneliness. They rarely enter into conflicts when trying to invade their inner world. Pickiness in choosing a spouse, search for an ideal. Emotional coldness, weak attachment to loved ones.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Restraint, sedateness, thoughtfulness of actions, strong convictions, adherence to principles.
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict. Stubbornly defending your unrealistic views. He has his own point of view on everything, often sharply different from the opinion of the majority.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. Deprivation of a “hobby” or favorite job is contraindicated. Loneliness, obsession, unceremoniousness, and the rudeness of others increase isolation. Cases of schizophrenia are common.
Preferredactivity. Work that does not require a wide range of contacts, interests in theoretical sciences, philosophical reflections, collecting, chess, music, science fiction.
Extroverted (conformal) type.
Features of communication and behavior. Highly sociable, talkative to the point of talkativeness, does not have his own opinion, is not very independent, strives to be like everyone else, disorganized, prefers to obey. He accepts orders from his superiors without hesitation. In society with friends and in the family, he cedes leadership to another.
Traits that are attractive to interlocutors. Willingness to listen to the “confession” of another, diligence
Traits that are repulsive andcontributing to conflict.“A man without a king in his head,” susceptibility to other people’s influence, thoughtlessness of actions, gullibility, passion for entertainment.
Situations in whichconflict is possible. A situation of forced loneliness, lack of control and unregulated life are contraindicated. Tendency to hypomania.
Preferredactivity. Easy adaptability to a new job. When tasks and rules of behavior are clearly defined, they can be good performers.
3. Manifestations of character in human behavior and activity.
Character-- lifetime acquisition of personalityty, included in the public systemTmilitary relations, injoint activities and communication with other people, and thusthe most gaining its individuality.
Leaving an imprint on a person’s appearance, character receives its most vivid expression in his actions, behavior, and activities. Oh haraToTere should be judged in neRsecond turnbased on the actions of people in which they most fullytheir essence is reflected.
There is a well-known Eastern proverb: “Sow an action and you will reap a habit, sow a habit and you will reap a character, sow a character and you will reap a destiny.” The emphasis in it is correctly placed on human actions, which, repeated, become habitual, are fixed in character traits, making up his being, influencing a person’s position in public life and the attitude of other people towards him. System athabitual actions and deeds-- the foundation of a person's character.
Man by his very essence is active. The structure of human activity includes both various involuntary, automated movements (facial expressions, pantomime, gait, etc.) and intentional actions of greater or lesser complexity. Movements and actions, the implementation of which becomes a need for a person under certain conditions, as is known, are called habits. The most successful portrait does not provide as much information about a person’s character as his usual actions and movements.
And yet, decisive, objective and irrefutable data about a person’s character are provided not by these involuntary actions and movements of a person and not by the features of his external appearance, but by his conscious and intentional actions and actions. It is by actions that we judge what a person is.
Thus, character has a social nature, that is, it depends on a person’s worldview, the content and nature of his activities, on the community in which he lives and acts, on active interaction with other people.
Character is only one aspect of a personality, but not the whole personality. The man put in exa tremulous situation or just a situationchoice, is able to rise above circumstances, includingnumber and over ownnny character.
This ability of a person to withstand any circumstances, including internal, psychological ones, represents a powerful force for a person’s self-change, the basis of his development as an individual. Therefore, any attempts at a final explanation of a person, a forecast of his behavior cannot be final in principle, since a person is capable of devaluing these explanations, challenging them and becoming different, that is, making a choice in favor of his social and universal use (and thereby his own development), and not just compliance with external and internal circumstances.
To the extent that a person is capable of this, heforeground insit is not the concrete characterological that steps, butpublic and universaleskoe. And to the extent that sheis not capable of this, the personality is actingAndcompletely exhaustedtheir character, typical individual characterAndstikami in typical situations.
In addition, the same circumstances are reflected by people far from the same. “Those who want to do things look for means; those who don’t want to do things look for reasons.” Which circumstances a person will identify as significant for himself can be determined both by the external circumstances themselves (at the situational level of behavior) and - further - by the prevailing circumstances individual characteristics personality (including its character), i.e. internal circumstances, and, finally, awareness of oneself as a subject of action, embodying high social and universal ideals, separated from both external (situational) and internal (individual psychological) circumstances and what can influence them.
Manifesting itself in actions and deeds, to the extent to which the subject is actively involved in joint activities, character turns out to be dependent both on the content of the activity, and on the successful or unsuccessful overcoming of difficulties, on distant and immediate prospects in achieving basic life goals.
Moreover, character depends on how a person relates (based on his previously established characteristics) to his failures and successes, to public opinion and a number of other circumstances. Thus, people studying in the same class of school or working in the same position acquire different character traits in connection with whether they cope with the task. Some people are inspired by success and motivate them to work or study even better, others tend to “rest on their laurels”; Failure depresses some, while it awakens fighting spirit in others.
Thus, the most important point in the formation of character is how a person relates to the environment and to himself - as to another. These relationships are at the same time the basis for the classification of the most important character traits.
A person’s character is manifested, firstly, in how he treats other people: family and friends, work and study comrades. Stable and unstable attachment, integrity and unprincipledness, sociability and isolation, truthfulness and deceit, tactfulness and rudeness reveal a person’s relationship with other people. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the team. In a team, during live communication with other people, character traits such as breadth or pettiness, quarrelsomeness or complaisance, peacefulness or a tendency to argue clearly appear.
Secondly, a person’s attitude towards himself is indicative of character: pride and feeling self-esteem or humiliation and lack of self-confidence. For some people, selfishness and egocentrism come to the fore (placing oneself at the center of all events), for others - the subordination of their own interests to the interests of the team, selflessness in the struggle for a common cause.
Thirdly, character is revealed in a person's attitude to business. Thus, the most valuable character traits of a person include conscientiousness and diligence, seriousness, enthusiasm, responsibility for the assigned work and concern for its results.
Fourthly, character is manifested in a person’s attitude towards things: not only the attitude towards public property, but also the careful or careless handling of one’s belongings, clothes and shoes, books and teaching aids, etc.
A person’s activity, his behavior, are, first of all, determined by the goals that he sets for himself, and the main determinant of his behavior and activity always remains the direction of his personality - the totality of his interests, ideals and beliefs. However, two people who have much in common in personality orientation and whose goals coincide can differ significantly in the methods they use to achieve these goals. Behind these differences lie personality traits. A person’s character seems to have a program for his typical behavior in typical circumstances. Character traits, therefore, have a certain driving, motivating force, which reveals itself to the greatest extent in stressful situations, if necessary, make a choice of actions, overcome significant difficulties.
A person who is decisive by nature moves from impulses to actions, often without any long-term struggle of motives. Tactfulness as a character trait of an individual promotes caution in statements, which involves taking into account a number of circumstances and problems that are significant for the people with whom he communicates.
Thus, as a character trait, the degree of expression in an individual can be considered achievement motivation-- his need to necessarily achieve success in any activity, no matter what he is doing, especially in conditions of competition with other people. Achievement motivation as a personality trait is formed during life as a result of systematic and personally significant rewards for successes and punishments for failures.
CONCLUSION.
Human character is a system of generalized generalized motivations fixed in an individual. The motivations generated by the circumstances of life are the “building material” from which character is formed. An impulse, a motive, is a property of character in its genesis. In order for a motive (motivation) to become a property of a personality, “stereotyped” in it, it must be generalized in relation to the situation in which it originally appeared, spreading to all situations similar to the first, in features that are significant in relation to the personality. A character property is ultimately a tendency, an impulse, a motive that naturally appears in this person under uniform conditions.
This understanding of character, connecting it with motives, seems to come into conflict with everyday observations, which indicate that sometimes people of great breath, living with the highest noblest motives, have a difficult character, which makes them not very pleasant companions in everyday communication, and on the other hand, you can often meet a person about whom everyone around him says: “What a good, easy character he has!”, And in this person you will not find either high goals or truly great spiritual motivations. Explanations for this must be sought not only in the fact that in people of the first and second types the center of mental attention is directed to different things, but also in the following circumstance: just as socially developed operations or methods of action are incorporated into abilities, socially developed operations or methods of action are, as it were, inlaid into character. developed modes of behavior that meet the requirements imposed by society on its members. These modes of behavior, which do not directly express the corresponding personal motives of a person, are mastered by him due to motives or considerations of a different order. There is therefore no direct coincidence or correspondence between the ways of behavior and the motives of a person, which are the results of his behavior. As a result, there is, or may be, a discrepancy between a person’s impulses, which are the results of his behavior, and the impulses, ready-made modes of behavior that he has mastered for incoming reasons. The character of a person thus consists of an alloy of impulses and modes of behavior not directly generated by them, acquired by the person. The basis of character is formed not by the modes of behavior themselves, but by the generalized impulses that regulate the corresponding modes of behavior, which, due to their generality, can be abstracted from individual particular situations and become fixed in a person, in the individual. Above the impulses, patterns of behavior mastered by a person are also built into character. Anyone who does not see their basis behind them and judges people only by their “manners” judges them superficially.
The study of character and its formation, still little advanced, should have focused primarily on this problem - the problem of the transition of situationally, by a combination of circumstances, generated motives (drives) into stable personal drives. In pedagogical terms, this determines the main line of educational work on character formation. The starting point here is the selection and instillation of appropriate motives through their generalization and stereotyping, turning into habits.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. General psychology: Textbook. For students of pedagogy. Institute / Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. - M.: Education, 1986.
2. Rubinshtein S. L. basics general psychology. - St. Petersburg: ZAO Publishing House “Peter”, 1999.
3. Stolyarenko L. D. Fundamentals of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishers T in "F" e nicks", 1997.
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The biological foundation on which personality is formed as social individual, is temperament.
Temperament (from the Latin temperamentum - proper relationship of parts, proportionality) is understood as a set of individual characteristics that characterize the dynamic (from the Greek dynamikos - strong, agile) and emotional aspects of human behavior and activity.
Of all the theories, with ancient times who tried to explain the essence of temperament, perhaps the most widespread is I. Pavlov’s system, which connected the individual characteristics of temperament with the basic properties he identified nervous system:
Strength - the ability of the nervous system to withstand strong stimuli, which determines the endurance and performance of nerve cells;
Balance, characterized by the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition;
Mobility, which is determined by the speed of change in the processes of excitation and inhibition.
A peculiar combination of these properties forms four types of nervous system, each of which correlates with one of the four types of temperament:
1. Choleric (strong, unbalanced, agile) is characterized by activity, energetic actions, sharp, impetuous movements, and their fast pace. Prone to sudden mood swings, quick-tempered, intolerant, prone to emotional breakdowns, and sometimes aggressive.
2. A sanguine person (strong, balanced, agile) is active and sociable. Quickly adapts to new conditions. Productive when interested. A sanguine person’s feelings arise easily and are easily replaced, his facial expressions are mobile and expressive.
3. Phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert) has difficulty switching from one type of activity to another and adapting to the situation. Characterized by a low level of mental activity. Feelings arise slowly, but are stable; an even, calm mood prevails.
4. Melancholic (weak type of VND) is characterized by a low level of activity. Tired quickly, easily wounded. Characterized by a tendency to deeply experience even minor events with weak external expression of feelings. Strong impacts often cause a prolonged inhibitory response.
In the future, ideas about temperament deepen and expand. Thus, other properties of the nervous system were also identified - lability (from the Latin laity - sliding, unstable), characterizing the speed of the onset and cessation of nervous processes, and dynamism (from the Greek dynamis - strength), manifested in the speed and ease of development of conditioned reflexes.
A comparison of the properties of the nervous system and behavioral characteristics made it possible to identify such properties of temperament as reactivity - the strength of the emotional reaction to external and internal stimuli - and activity, which shows how active a person is in overcoming obstacles, in his actions and actions.
At the same time, by the ratio of activity and reactivity, one can judge on what human activity depends more - on random circumstances or on intended goals.
The following mental properties were also identified:
Sensitivity, which is determined by the magnitude of the smallest stimulus necessary for the occurrence of a mental reaction;
Plasticity and rigidity - flexibility, ease of adaptation to new conditions and, on the contrary, inertia, insensitivity to changing conditions;
Extroversion and introversion - the personality’s focus on the world or on yourself, on your own experiences and thoughts, etc.
It became clear that there are much more properties of the nervous system, and therefore their combinations, but nevertheless, the types of temperament considered can serve as a generalized characteristic of a person’s individual characteristics.
It should be taken into account that temperament types do not exist in their pure form, and we can only talk about the predominance of certain of its traits. Moreover, it cannot be said that any type of temperament is better or worse; each of them has advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages of a choleric person are initiative, energy, and the ability to mobilize significant efforts in a short period of time. At the same time, the predominance of reactivity over activity can lead to a lack of endurance and patience, especially when achieving distant goals.
Under unfavorable conditions, lack of serious goals, impossibility creative activity The mobility of a sanguine person, the speed of reaction can manifest themselves in superficiality and inconstancy. The advantage of a phlegmatic person is that he can work long and hard, but in order to get involved in this work, he needs considerable time. The high sensitivity of a melancholic person, which provides depth and subtlety of feelings, results in rapid fatigue and often increased level anxiety, which can negatively affect the success of activities.
Temperamental deficiencies are especially pronounced in extreme conditions, so they should be taken into account in professions that place special demands on the dynamic and emotional qualities of a person.
Under normal conditions, the characteristics of temperament, manifested in the tempo and rhythm of activity, determine the originality of methods and paths, tactics of action, i.e. individual style activities.
Having developed an individual style of activity that best suits individual characteristics, a person can achieve high results.
Thus, the initial properties of temperament do not predetermine what they will develop into - advantages or disadvantages. This depends on the upbringing and self-education of the individual, during which the results of the development of the positive properties of each type of temperament and compensation for shortcomings are fixed in the person’s character. Temperament only complicates or facilitates the formation of certain character traits, being its natural basis.
Character (from the Greek character - seal, embossing) is a set of stable individual characteristics of a person, which develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, determining typical modes of behavior for it.
Character is manifested in the system of a person’s relationship to the surrounding reality, which primarily includes:
Attitude towards other people (extroversion or introversion, truthfulness or deceitfulness, tactfulness or rudeness, etc.);
Attitude to business (conscientiousness or dishonesty, hard work or laziness, etc.);
Attitude towards oneself (self-criticism or self-confidence, modesty or narcissism, etc.);
Attitude towards property (neatness or sloppiness, thrift or wastefulness, etc.).
Thus, character, motivating a person’s behavior in a certain way, is closely related to the orientation of the individual. At the same time, these are not identical concepts: polite and neat, for example, can be people who differ sharply in their beliefs and moral principles.
Character is formed in the process of socialization of a person in the conditions of his inclusion in various social communities. The formation of certain character traits - stable forms of behavior in connection with specific situations typical for a given type of behavior - largely depends on the degree of favorableness of the interpersonal relationships that have developed in them. In atypical situations, a person may display patterns of behavior that are unusual for him: polite - rudeness, modest - cheekiness, etc.
There are many theories that try to connect the manifestation of character with the characteristics of a person’s external appearance, his physique, handwriting, etc., but the most complete picture of a person can be obtained from his actions (conscious, deliberate actions in which he asserts his attitude towards other people , to oneself, to the world as a whole).
It is in actions as acts of behavior that character is manifested and its formation occurs. You can become kind and honest only by doing kind and honest deeds. The saying has long been known: “If you sow an action, you will reap a habit; if you sow a habit, you will reap a character; if you sow a character, you will reap a destiny.”
Thus, the formation of character that occurs as a result of a person’s training and upbringing is determined by the objective circumstances of his life path, but these circumstances themselves can change under the influence of a person’s actions. As a result, he is able to rise above his character, change it, and become the creator of himself.
To determine the structure or structure of a person’s character means to identify the main components of the property in the character and to establish the specific features determined by them in their relationship and interaction.
In the structure of an established character, we must distinguish two sides: content and form. The content includes features that express the orientation of the individual (stable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relationships to the surrounding reality and represent individually unique ways of implementing these relationships. In the content of character, one or another component may come to the fore, depending on the way of life, educational influences and the requirements of the surrounding reality. One or another orientation of the individual leaves an imprint on all human behavior, although it is determined by an integral system of relationships.
Different forms of character express the ways in which relationships emerge, emotional and volitional characteristics of behavior and temperament. People differ from each other in their habits and behavior patterns. Intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits relate to form.
In the system of personality relationships, four groups of character traits are distinguished, forming symptom complexes. Symptom complexes are systems of interrelated mental properties.
Traits that characterize a person’s attitude towards other people, towards the team, towards society (sociability, sensitivity, responsiveness, respect for other people and the opposite traits - isolation, callousness, callousness, rudeness, contempt for people).
Traits that show a person’s attitude towards his work (hard work, a penchant for creativity, conscientiousness, responsibility, perseverance and the opposite traits - laziness, a tendency to routine work, dishonesty, irresponsibility, passivity).
Traits that show how a person relates to himself (self-esteem, pride, self-criticism, modesty and their opposites - doubts, arrogance, vanity, arrogance, resentment, shyness, selfishness, egocentrism).
Traits that characterize a person’s attitude towards things (neatness or sloppiness, careful or not careful attitude towards things) 3.
Depending on one or another, the structure of a person’s character manifests certain behavioral traits. The number of these traits is large. But it is possible to determine the main groups, or types, of character traits. These include:
Moral (sensitivity, attentiveness, delicacy);
Strong-willed (temper, passion, tenderness);
Emotional (decisiveness, persistence, firmness).
The main synthetic properties of a positive nature can be more clearly defined. Among them are the following:
Moral education of character. It characterizes a person from the direction and form of behavior.
Fullness of character. It testifies to the versatility of a person’s aspirations and hobbies, and the variety of activities. Such people are distinguished by inner wealth and activity.
Integrity of character. This is the unity of a person’s mental make-up, the consistency of his attitudes towards various aspects of activity, the absence of contradictions in aspirations and interests, the unity of word and deed.
Definition of character. It is expressed in the stability of behavior, which in all cases corresponds to established beliefs, moral and political ideas and concepts, the main orientation that constitutes the meaning of a person’s life and activity. You can tell in advance about such a person how he will behave in certain living conditions.
Strength of character. This is the energy with which a person pursues the goals he has set for himself, this is the ability to become passionately involved and develop great tension when encountering difficulties and obstacles, this is the ability to overcome them.
Strength of character. It manifests itself in the sequence of actions and perseverance of a person, in the conscious defense of views and decisions made.
Balance of character. This is the most optimal ratio of restraint and activity for activity and communication with people, developed evenness of behavior 4.
These character traits are in a complex, sometimes contradictory relationship. All these properties are not a natural gift, but the result of life influences, education and self-education. But education itself is determined by appropriate motivation, which depends on mental processes and states.
The mental state has much in common with individual personality traits, and first of all, with character.
Like character, mental state expresses a synthetic view of mental activity. Like character, the mental state is unique, therefore, both character and mental state are difficult to model. But there are significant differences between character and mental state.
A mental state, no matter how long it lasts, is a temporary characteristic of mental activity. The character is more stable. The mental state is more labile than character, or largely depends on the immediate situation. Mental states are not always indicative of a given character, but very often mental states serve as an indicator of character.
Mental states tend to leave an imprint on a person's experiences and activities over a period of time or longer.
Mental states that are not indicative of character often worry a person when he finds himself in new conditions or when he has to engage in new, unusual activities.
Episodic mental states can be negative, positive and neutral.
There are expressions in everyday life: “trick”, “lost my temper”. In a number of cases, they denote such states and the actions corresponding to them that are completely alien to a given person, and, acting in a way that is not appropriate for himself, he temporarily changes to the opposite 5.
Episodic conditions are not fixed and do not affect a person’s character. But in many cases that are not typical for humans, the condition is not an episode, but the first manifestation of a new character trait.
A mental state turns into a character trait after it has been consolidated; in some cases this process proceeds slowly, in others quickly.
The state of stress, anxiety, rigidity and frustration, like other mental states, can be temporary and transient, not corresponding to character traits, but turning into a character trait and, finally, typical of a person’s character.
There are stressors of such strength that they cause a state of stress even in a person who is not very prone to this state. In some cases, such a state is no more than an episode in a person’s mental activity, in others it becomes fixed when repeated. But the state of stress occurs especially often and is experienced with particular severity in people predisposed to such a state; stress is typical for them; it occurs in them under relatively mild stress.
There are also states that are disguises of character. A person sometimes resorts to this kind of state in order to hide that character trait of his, the discovery of which for one reason or another is undesirable. The person seems to be playing out a mental state that is far from the hidden trait, and often opposite to it.
There are character disguises that are completely legal, even necessary. The duty of politeness requires, when in society, not to reveal a negative attitude towards the people there” 6.
When deciding the question of mental states and character, it should be said about the great importance of mental states for the methodology of character research. To understand a character trait well, it must first be accurately described, analyzed, and explained as a temporary state. Only after such a study can the question be raised about the conditions for consolidating this state, its stability in the character structure. Although determining the mental state is not an easy task, it is easier than determining character, which, in addition to all other difficulties, still requires a lot of time so that the stability of the supposed character traits can be monitored.
Character can only be determined by its manifestations. Character diagnostics is based on facts that give grounds for the assumption that a given person has such and such character traits.
“Characterological differences between people can best be established by studying the activities of one or another person. Neither direction, nor will, nor structural features, as components of character, can be determined if we do not know how a person acts: he works, plays, what his behavior is, what actions he performs.”
The same person sometimes manifests himself in different types of work in different ways, depending on the conditions, his attitude towards it, and the successes achieved.
“Character, especially in children, is manifested in play activities. Observations of preschool children during free games show that character traits that emerge with age are revealed in the very choice of play. Some children prefer group games, others prefer individual games, some are calm, others are active; some with ready-made toys, others with self-made crafts.”
When studying manifestations of character in activity, it is necessary to find out the motives for a given action, since outwardly similar actions can be a manifestation of different characterological traits.
The more complex and lengthy the activity, the more clearly it expresses character. For character, not only the activities, actions and behavior of a person in their external expression, but also the corresponding mental states are indicative.
Character is also manifested in the content of speech: its topic, plot, factual material and thoughts. A Russian proverb says: “Whoever hurts, talks about it.” Indeed, the favorite content of a conversation usually shows the dominant interest, its direction. On the one hand, speech is saturated with material that interests the speaker, and on the other hand, a person in his speech adapts to the interests of his interlocutor. Some people prefer to talk only about themselves and their affairs, while others, on the contrary, try to perhaps better satisfy the interests of their interlocutor in a conversation.
A person’s speech style can indicate general emotionality, as well as the content of dominant emotions.
Vocal facial expressions are also of characterological significance, as they introduce something new into the style of oral speech. Some speak monotonously, others often change intonation, some like to make more or less expressive pauses, others avoid pauses, some have a lot of speech in their speech, others have simple and natural intonations. Such external features of speech as smoothness, rhythm, high or low tone, haste or slowness are also not without significance.
Manifestations of character in speech are diverse. Therefore, it would be wrong to judge a person’s character by any aspect of speech. It is necessary to consider them every time with other manifestations of character.
Character is manifested not only in external, but also in internal speech. A person can experience severe mental pain, which remains known only to him - it is expressed in inner speech, often taking the form of an internal monologue.
A person’s speech can be sincere and deliberate. Children's speech is usually distinguished by great sincerity and spontaneity. The speech of a person who wants to express his inner feelings that overwhelm him and require an outlet outside can be very sincere. A person’s pretentiousness can be explained by the person’s obsequiousness, the desire to please the interlocutor, or it means that there are no close, cordial relationships between the interlocutors, due to which these people limit themselves to empty, official words. Finally, the artificiality of speech is sometimes explained by the desire to show off sophisticated expressions.
Character traits can affect both oral and written speech, in its vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and style.
It has long been noted that it is not without characterological significance whether a given person prefers to express his thoughts orally or in writing. A preference for conventional speech is observed in people who are sociable, lively, and often have a sanguine temperament; People who are self-centered, shy, and self-conscious are more inclined to write. But such facts cannot be generalized. Preference for oral or written speech can be explained by various reasons, and primarily by the presence or absence of the proper skill, and therefore the characterological indicators of such preference can be established by comparison with other manifestations of character . 7
Often in life, to judge a person’s character, they resort to the indicators given by his face. There is a proverb: “The face is the mirror of the soul.”
They talk about likeable and unattractive people, thereby indicating the positivity or negativity of their character traits, as they find expression in their facial features. When they say about a person, meaning his appearance, that this person is “handsome, but unattractive,” this often means that the beautiful features of his face express negative qualities, such as arrogance, arrogance, selfishness, disregard for other people.
Character indicators on a person’s face can be divided into static and dynamic. Static indicators include structural features of the head eye outlines, lips, forehead, nose. By the physical physiognomy one can judge the spiritual physiognomy. Dynamic indicators include facial expressions, that is, expressive facial movements, all those changes in the face that are not random and situational, but are in some way related to the mental appearance of a person.
Gestures sometimes reveal a person's character more than their appearance. You can distinguish between people with rich and poor gesticulation. Being associated with emotional excitability, gestures often express a person’s temperament: we expect abundant gestures from sanguine and choleric people rather than from melancholic and phlegmatic people. But abundant gestures can have different characterological meanings. It can speak of lack of restraint, as well as unnaturalness. Similarly, the stinginess of gestures in some cases means general inhibition and shyness, in others it means greater restraint, smartness, and the ability to control oneself.
Some people are called mannered because their gestures are forced, ostentatious, artificial.
Even a person’s costume and his things sometimes represent an important detail in his characterization.
All of these features of a person’s external appearance have characterological significance, not only each individually, but also in combination with one another.” 8
A person's appearance can be interpreted in different ways. A person who laughs often is not always cheerful, and a whiny person is not always a pessimist. Only having some knowledge about a person’s character from other manifestations (primarily from activity), can one say what trait the humorousness or tearfulness of a given person indicates.
The connection between manifestations and character traits in each specific case should be considered depending on the situation, the role of the person in the situation, the characteristics of the trait in question, its connection with others, and also on whether the person wants to reveal his trait or, conversely, hide it.
A person’s character depends not only on current life trends, living conditions and activities, but also on past influences, on the entire life history that determines a person’s character. That is why, when studying character, you need to know not only the real conditions of life, but also all the complexity and diversity of situations and influences that shaped the personality.
Depending on the various situations in which a person finds himself, and the various demands that were made on him before and are placed on him now, he may be persistent in one thing and not persistent in another.
The contradictory or inconsistent behavior of some people in different life situations is explained by the lack of integrity of character, the partial development of its individual traits.
Character in general and in particular its moral properties are formed in a team - in a system of interpersonal relations.
The formation of character traits goes through three stages:
the first stage is when a person acquires knowledge about ways of behavior, but this knowledge is not yet supported by his own experience;
the second stage is the stage of mental states that have not yet become properties of the individual, since they are of a temporary situational nature, but already give a person his own emotional experience in the implementation of acquired modes of behavior in which his relationships are expressed;
third stage - consolidation of acquired behavior patterns in various types activities and situations.
The most important means of education is work. Work develops traits that characterize not only an individual’s attitude to work (hard work, responsibility, conscientiousness, initiative, perseverance), but also traits such as discipline, collectivism, self-criticism, accuracy, frugality, which characterize a person’s mental makeup, his attitude towards others. to people, to oneself, to things.
Since a person’s character is tempered by overcoming difficulties, it is necessary to have clearly recognized perspective lines (close, medium, long-term perspectives, the achievement of which requires increasing efforts to overcome external and internal obstacles).
The role of self-education in the process of character formation is also important. But self-education is conditioned by appropriate motivation. A person must first of all realize the need for self-education.” 9
Character is not only formed in activity and communication, but also, for its part, influences and determines the implementation of various types of activities and communication processes. These influences become especially pronounced as a result of the manifestation of various accentuations. Accentuation of character is an excessive strengthening of individual character traits, manifested in the selective attitude of the individual and a certain kind of psychological influence with good and even increased resistance to others. Different combinations of overly enhanced traits produce different character types. From Russian characterology, the most significant typologies were proposed by Lesgaft and Lazursky.
Lesgaft divided the types into two categories. “The first category includes types with activity-increased manifestations:
1) hypocritical;
2) ambitious;
3) good-natured;
4) maliciously beaten;
5) softly hammered;
6) oppressed.
In addition to these six types, Lesgaft outlined the ideally normal type, which is characterized by harmony between mental and physical development, prudence, activity, sensitivity, simplicity in all manifestations and actions. He combines the best traits of the good-natured and depressed type.” 10
There are other typologies proposed by both domestic and foreign psychologists.
Any typology of people should serve the purpose of an in-depth understanding of character, for which it is necessary to carefully study each individual character.
Revealing Character Structure - its features and manifestations allows us to outline the main ways of studying it.
Characterological methods include: observation, introspection and introspection, natural and laboratory experiments, conversations and questionnaires, free writing, analysis of activity products.
Materials that serve as a source of knowledge of character: letters, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, biographies, literary and artistic works.
So, character is a set of individually unique properties of a person, determined by his relationships and manifested in methods of activity typical for a given personality.
In the character of each person one must see the unity of stable and dynamic properties.
Character can mask one of the innate manifestations, enhance others, and inhibit others due to the formation and strengthening of new reflex connections.
Consequently, from a natural science point of view, character is an alloy of traits such as nervous activity and life impressions, fixed in the form of certain temporary nerve connections in the cerebral cortex.
Character is a consequence of reflecting the complexity of life experiences and is formed in the process of active interaction between the individual and the environment.
Character finds its expression not only in actions and actions, but also in speech, facial expressions and pantomime, and also leaves its mark on the external appearance of the individual and is reflected in a typical pose.
Character, reflecting life, in turn influences lifestyle.
Character has great importance not only for the individual himself, but also for society.
Character is a holistic formation, a system of personality properties that are in certain relationships to each other. In the structure of character, content and form are distinguished. The content of character reflects social influences, influences, and constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e., his material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes.
Different forms of character express ways of manifesting relationships, entrenched emotional and volitional characteristics of behavior and temperament. People differ from each other in their habits and behavior patterns.
Character is influenced by needs, intelligence and abilities, will, emotions, orientation, and temperament.
Character is formed in the process of education and self-education.
A set of distinctive, essential, typical features
forms a type of character that reflects the typical living conditions of people.
Character is studied using certain methods, using certain tools and methods.
Character is one of the most interesting properties of a person, which requires extraordinary attention and study.
When analyzing a person's character, they usually name certain traits that are typical for a given person. In everyday practice, they most often point to moral and volitional traits on which the social behavior of an individual depends. In characterology, numerous attempts have been made to define character traits, as well as personality in general. At the same time, some followed the path of simply listing the traits that one way or another characterize a person. These lists often include hundreds of trait words. Others sought to determine the main character traits based on a person’s basic relationships: to society, people, work, and to himself. Still others took a functional approach to the problem. They identified features corresponding to the main groups of mental processes, namely: intellectual, emotional and volitional. Still others took an eclectic path, highlighting both directional traits and traits associated with basic mental functions. The most economical, practically significant and scientifically substantiated is the identification of synthetic traits in the character, in which many personality traits are focused. Such synthetic properties include moral education and strength. completeness, integrity, originality, balance, dynamism. Moral education characterizes a person both in terms of his attitude towards people, social tasks, and forms of command. Humanism, sensitive attitude towards people, kindness, devotion to the common cause and comrades, hard work, the ability to work in a team and collectively, tact and delicacy in handling - all these qualities characterize the content and form of a collectivist person. At the other pole of moral character is the individualist, for whom people are only means to achieve his selfish goals. This is a person who cares first of all about himself; in case of difficulty, he is ready to betray the team, his comrade. This is an individual either with a muffled voice of conscience, or completely devoid of it. Between these two poles, collectivist - egoist, there are various transitional types, standing closer to one or the other pole. Completeness characterizes the richness of the human personality. A well-rounded person is interested in both art and science. Distinguished by a responsible attitude to his behavior, at the same time he can enthusiastically play with children; being serious, it is contagious to laugh when you hear a joke or witticism. He is sociable, can approach everyone tactfully and bring joy. He knows a lot and can do a lot. In contrast to this property, a one-sided person is a person with a limited, poor spiritual world. He may be a good specialist, but he turns out to be a poor interlocutor on issues of science, art and literature, since he has not read anything, has not been to painting exhibitions, and has not followed the development of knowledge, painting, music, literature. He is either strict or very gentle, but he cannot be both. Integrity characterizes the internal unity of a person, his attitudes and deeds, relationships and real behavior. A person with an integral character is distinguished by great certainty. About this. it is easy to say what he will do tomorrow and the day after tomorrow and how he will behave in various life circumstances. Indeed, a person with an integral character is a convinced person who has no discrepancy between word and deed. Integrity in relationships with people, in resolving every public and personal issue, is a characteristic feature of a complete personality. In contrast, a person with a scattered character is uncertain. Not only others, but he himself does not know what he will be interested in tomorrow, how he will solve the question posed by life, with whom he will be friends. It may be a broad nature, but it has no backbone, no core on which everything else could be strung. Hence the discrepancy between thoughts and feelings, words and deeds. Such a person is not reliable either in friendship, or in love, or in work, and especially in trouble. Strength of character is the energy of a person. A person with a strong character not only has iron logic, but also knows how to defend his beliefs and achieve the realization of his goals, despite the difficulties and obstacles encountered in his activities. A person of strong character is distinguished by passion for work, the ability to develop great tension of strength, perseverance and natural, but also developed in life, evenness of behavior, a high moral culture of a person who knows how to hold himself, in the words of I. P. Pavlov, “at the height of his means.” It is in balance that the moral-volitional and intellectual education of the individual is manifested. Synthetic character traits can be in a harmonious combination or be in a contradictory relationship to each other. The most positive type is a morally educated person, distinguished by great completeness and integrity of character. However, he can be both balanced and unbalanced. In the latter case, in moments of excitement, he becomes harsh and breaks tact in his speech, which he later bitterly regrets. The person with strong character may be morally poorly educated. It also happens that a positive quality coexists with a negative one, for example, completeness of character with its uncertainty, or strength of character with one-sidedness and one-sidedness of personality, kindness with weak character. In the character of every person there is one leading quality that sets the tone for a person’s behavior and which catches the eye of others.
THE CONCEPT OF CHARACTER
CHARACTER TRAITS
BUILDING CHARACTER AS A WHOLE
MANIFESTATION OF CHARACTER
METHODS AND SOURCES OF CHARACTER KNOWLEDGE
UNITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND TYPICAL TRAITS IN HUMAN CHARACTER
LITERATURE
THE CONCEPT OF CHARACTER
Character is a certain style of relationship and behavior of a person that has developed and strengthened under the influence of life influences and upbringing. The character of a person expresses a certain set of his needs and interests, aspirations and goals, feelings and will, manifested in the selectivity of his reality and behavior, in relationships and behavior patterns. The following main qualities are distinguished in character: moral education, completeness, integrity, certainty, strength, balance. Moral education characterizes a person, both in terms of his relationships and forms of behavior, and is the leading and most socially valuable quality of character. Completeness characterizes the versatility of needs and interests, aspirations and hobbies, and the variety of human activities. Some people are distinguished by their versatility, others by their narrowness, one-sidedness and limited development. Integrity characterizes the internal unity of a person’s mental makeup, the consistency of his relationships with various aspects of reality, the absence of contradictions in aspirations and interests, the unity of word and deed. Certainty characterizes the firmness and inflexibility of behavior, which constantly corresponds to established beliefs, moral and political ideas and concepts, the developed main orientation that constitutes the meaning of human life and activity. Strength characterizes the energy with which a person pursues his goals, the ability to become passionately involved and develop great tension when encountering difficulties and obstacles and overcoming them. Balance characterizes the most optimal or favorable ratio of restraint and activity for activity and communication with people. These basic properties are in a complex, sometimes contradictory relationship. Completeness, integrity, certainty and strength of character are determined as a result of life influences and upbringing. Character is formed in the process of continuous interaction of the individual with the people around him, in the process of reflecting the developing circumstances of life and upbringing. The completeness and strength of their character depend on the range of impressions and diversity of people’s activities.
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF CHARACTER
To understand the physiological basis of character, it is necessary to turn to the works of I.P. Pavlov about higher nervous activity, and especially to his teaching about the properties and types of the nervous system. In his works, he brought the concept of the nervous system closer to the concept of temperament. Pavlov based his classification of nervous system types on:
1) the strength of the basic nervous processes - irritable and inhibitory;
2) balance of excitation and inhibition;
3) mobility of these processes.
The strength of the nervous system is determined by both irritative and inhibitory processes. It is primarily expressed in the ability to “endure” strong stimuli. A strong type has a large supply of such a substance, a weak type has a small one. A weak nervous system, when exposed to very strong stimuli, becomes exhausted and gives rise to neuroses. The performance of a strong nervous system is expressed in the ease of establishing conditioned connections under extremely strong stimuli. According to the principle of the strength of the nervous system, Pavlov contrasts melancholic people, as representatives of the weak type, with sanguine people and choleric people, as strong types. The next principle of distinguishing types is the principle of balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition, or the ability to balance the process of excitation with the process of inhibition. It should be noted that this principle was originally used by Pavlov as the basis for his classification of types. He distinguished two extreme types: excitable and inhibitory, and two central, balanced ones. According to the principle of balance, excitation and inhibition among strong types will stand out as an unbalanced choleric person. Although the weak type of the nervous system is distinguished by the weakness of both processes - both excitation and inhibition, however, at this level there are balanced and unbalanced types. The third principle of the typology of the nervous system is its lability, mobility, that is, the ease of changing excitation with inhibition or, conversely, inhibition with excitation in one area of the cortex. Pavlov attached very great importance to this principle, especially in his last statements. The sanguine person, as the owner of a strong, balanced and mobile nervous system, was often recognized by Pavlov as the most perfect type, but at the same time he often emphasized the very positive features of the phlegmatic and sometimes unrestrained type. In light of recent research by many psychologists, we must abandon any attempts to compare temperament as a mental property of a person with the type of nervous activity or nervous system. The fact that the type of nervous system is the physiological basis of temperament, and unambiguous at that, that is, that temperament physiologically depends on the type of nervous system, does not mean equating temperament with the properties of this type - temperament is characterized by its own psychological traits. In addition, the type of nervous system underlies not only temperament, but also other mental properties of the individual, as well as mental processes and states. Thus, speaking about the physiological basis of character, we should not talk about temperament, which is not a physiological category, but about the type of nervous system. Pavlov admits that much of his teaching about the types of the nervous system requires additional research. Recognizing the full significance of Pavlov's teaching about the properties and types of the nervous system, one should not blindly follow this teaching - one must creatively develop it, introducing significant directives, and sometimes revising the problems of this teaching. Type, according to Pavlov, is the “main characteristic” of the nervous system, which leaves an imprint on all human activity, and, of course, is thereby one of the foundations of character. But Pavlov, at the same time, firmly and definitely distinguished between type (often called temperament) and character. By the type of the nervous system we should understand its innate qualities, and by character - first of all, what is acquired by the nervous system under the influence of life experience and, first of all, upbringing. Thus, the type of nervous system is only one of the foundations of character, but is not a person’s character and does not predetermine it. However, all those traits that are acquired during life experience and which, according to the views of I.P. Pavlov, constitute mainly character, are not formed out of nowhere, but are associated with a certain innate type, with certain “data” of strength, balance and mobility of the nervous system. The greatest importance for character is upbringing and hence not the inherited type, but the plasticity of the nervous organization. It is on the plasticity of the nervous system that character is based, primarily that organization of nervous processes that is associated with the influence of the environment.
DIRECTION AND WILL AS COMPONENTS OF CHARACTER
A person’s character receives its content depending on the goals that give direction to his activities. Orientation is something that characterizes a given person, a unique selective attitude towards reality that he experiences, which influences his activities. The basis of the focus is the worldview as a set of views on nature and society. Worldview becomes a belief because it becomes an internal property of the individual, deeply influencing his activities. Worldview itself is not the subject of psychology; psychologists study how a worldview, becoming a person’s belief, penetrates his consciousness and activity. A person’s self-determination, the goals that a person sets for himself, and the means that he prefers in the struggle to achieve a goal are closely related to worldview as the content of orientation. People with the same worldview have significant individual differences in character. In a word, the worldview, which is the content of a person’s orientation, is the basis of character. To understand orientation, it is important to know not only its content, but also what we conventionally call its mental characteristics or psychological forms of orientation. These forms primarily include mindfulness. When we are talking not about attention, but specifically about attentiveness, what is meant is not just a mental process or mental function, but a trait of a person’s orientation. Mindfulness manifests itself in both involuntary and voluntary attention. If, for example, a person is very reactive or impressionable, that is, without spending effort, he pays attention to many different things, then this, so to speak, is involuntary attentiveness, characterizing a person. But what is even more characteristic of a person is deliberate, conscious attentiveness, which often requires overcoming internal resistance, interfering thoughts and feelings. The strength of this kind of voluntary attentiveness is an indicator of such important strong-willed character traits as endurance and perseverance.
One of the most common forms of human orientation is his interests. Interest should be understood as emotionally charged attitudes towards objects and phenomena of life, expressed in the desire to cognize these objects and phenomena and master them. It is known that in a person’s struggle to achieve a goal, his conscious interest is of great importance. A person can never become interested in something that has neither direct nor indirect relation to him and which, therefore, is devoid of any meaning for him. Usually interest is caused by the desire to act in such a way that it will be realized. Ideals should be distinguished from interests as one of the forms of orientation.
those specifically expressed in social order, in people, ideas, actions and works of achievement, which a given person considers to be the highest and in which he sees the ultimate goal of his personal or social aspirations. Some people do not set ideals for themselves in life, being satisfied with solving current problems and achieving immediate goals; other people sometimes live so abstractly by ideals that they do not connect them with the performance of their daily duties. For some people, ideals are of real, sometimes even decisive importance. Direction also includes a person’s feelings. To characterize a person, it is important to know whether he surrenders to his feelings without any internal resistance, fights his feelings, or, finally, actively contributes to their development. A person is also characterized by the place feelings occupy in his personality and the extent to which a person’s consciousness and activity are permeated by them. But not all individual characteristics in feelings can naturally be attributed to character. Feelings are aspects of character to the extent that they express a person’s relationship to reality that is significant for the individual and influence the human personality. We also cannot underestimate the role of passions as one of the forms of human orientation.
Passion is understood as a pronounced active emotional state that strongly influences a person’s consciousness and activity, mastering him for a long time, sometimes for his whole life. There are also negative passions. The psychologist is interested not only in what the object of this or that negative passion is, but also in whether a person is aware of its inadmissibility, whether he is struggling to overcome this passion or trying to justify it. A person’s lack of the necessary passion in work and beliefs can express weakness of will and weak character. If direction is the “head” of character, then will, as they say, is its “backbone”. Will is that side of mental activity that reflects social needs and is expressed in the conscious setting of a goal (determination), determination or readiness to achieve this goal, activity, organization and perseverance necessary to overcome obstacles standing in the way of achieving the goal. A person makes his life activity the object of his will and his consciousness. Thanks to the will, a person’s activities are directed, regulated, and controlled. Volitional activity is always a conscious and purposeful activity. The source of the formation of personality and will are industrial and social relations that give rise to certain social needs. In order to produce, people must unite for joint activity and mutual exchange of this activity. Production takes place only under certain social relations between people.
Volitional activity as a person’s influence on nature and on other people is formed in production relations, which are always at the same time social relations. The motivation of volitional action is of great importance for the conscious setting of a goal and the readiness to achieve it. First of all, the question is raised about the content or direction of motives as conscious incentives to action. Volitional processes are varied. Thus, they can have the forms of attraction, desire, desire and intention. Sometimes attraction is characterized by the fact that its goal seems unclear or vague. In fact, attraction is often driven by a very clear, even at times obsessive, goal. In desire, compared to attraction, the moment of human self-determination is more clearly expressed. A person in this state has better self-control, reasoning, and choosing a goal than during attraction. Wanting, in contrast to desire, is usually understood as a process that is associated with the choice of not only a goal, but also the means leading to its achievement. In wanting, a greater readiness for action is generally emphasized than in desire. But this readiness is not always expressed in the fact that the paths to achieving the goal are clearly presented, but more often in the exclusion of competing goals, in a targeted narrowing of attention. Volitional processes must also be distinguished in relation to calmness or severity, the turbulence of their course. The turbulence and intensity of the volitional process are also expressed in the expenditure of volitional effort. Volitional effort must be understood as a kind of order to oneself to do everything that contributes to achieving the goal. Although will is one of the main components of character, it would still be wrong to compare will and character. First of all, not every volitional process has characterological significance. Some intentions, aspirations and desires of a person may be temporary, purely situational states, common to many people and completely atypical for a given individual. Character in the strict sense of the word is only one of the components of personality, which also includes abilities, temperament, and self-awareness. When comparing character with personality, psychologists often exclude from it abilities, which in fact are a clear expression of personality in its creative activity. Character, in the broad sense of the word, is only one aspect of personality.
CHARACTER TRAITS
Character traits are understood as complex individual characteristics that are quite indicative of a person and allow one to predict his behavior in a particular case with a certain probability.
Knowing that a given person has a certain character trait, it is possible to some extent to foresee how he will act under certain circumstances. Knowing the traits of his character, a person himself is often guided by them as a kind of criterion for behavior. There are traits - habits (politeness, neatness, etc.), it would be wrong to consider every character trait a habit. Character traits, especially those that are most significant for the individual, including some skills and habits, are distinguished by pronounced consciousness. On the other hand, not every habit is a character trait. Every character trait, even the most clear, is always complex and dynamic. The same trait is formed in different ways and changes depending, on the one hand, on certain life situations and, on the other hand, on other traits and on character as a whole. All character traits are “authentic,” that is, they represent a real and concrete expression of the individual uniqueness of a person living in specific historical conditions.
Character traits can have different brightness, they can be more or less definite, but “fixed” or imaginary; only non-existent traits should be considered. In the field of studying character traits, psychologists face several main tasks. The first of them is to identify and describe the character traits that are leading or core for a given personality and, above all, those that reflect her orientation and will. The second task, closely related to the first, is to explain or analyze character traits. This analysis can go in different directions:
a) reveal the structure of a trait, which means highlighting more specific and subordinate traits and manifestations in a given trait;
b) show the significance of a given trait in the structure of character by establishing the relationship between this trait and other traits, as well as the character as a whole;
c) find what is individual about a given trait and its manifestations and what is typical for a certain group of people;
d) establish the conditions under which this trait is most fully manifested, and thereby outline the ways of its formation.
The third task is to establish prospects for character development. When studying a person’s character, it is necessary to answer not only the questions of what the character traits of this person are and how they arose and were formed, but also the question in which direction these traits can and should develop as indicators of character. The study of character traits in their long-term development will make it possible to introduce the necessary dynamics into the character structure, for which it is so important to establish not only the relationship of character traits, but also the specific conditions for their development.
BUILDING CHARACTER AS A WHOLE
The structure of character as a whole means its definiteness, integrity, complexity, originality and dynamism. One of the most important features of character is its certainty. Determination of character does not always mean the dominance of one trait. Several traits may dominate, even contradicting one another. In the absence of clearly expressed traits, the character loses its definition. People who are considered weak-willed or characterless do not have the certainty that lies in the clarity and distinctness of their core traits. Lack of certainty does not mean a complete lack of character in a given person; it exists and is to some extent indicative of its vagueness, which gives grounds to call such a person characterless. Integrity of character means its internal unity, the absence of contradictory traits in the character, the correspondence between the direction and activity, consciousness and actions of a person. Every character is complex, but the complexity of character varies. The complexity of a character may well be combined with its integrity.
The structure of some characters has contradictions and this increases their complexity. The complexity of a character is sometimes mistaken for its lack of external expression. Therefore, the so-called open natures seem easier to many than secretive people masking their character. Dynamic character may mean some variability in its traits, caused both by external conditions and changes in work on oneself. There are characters that can conditionally be called static. In themselves, dynamism and static character are not an advantage or a disadvantage - it all depends on what the dynamism and staticity are aimed at. Sometimes one distinguishes among character traits his originality, that is, such individual originality that is rare. Originality in itself is not something positive, as some people tend to think. But originality can be positive feature, when a person, in his individuality, aimed at high goals, is unique in the full sense of the word. Character is usually assessed in terms of its strength or toughness.
Definition and integrity of character, as well as its complexity, breadth and dynamism, can rather be seen as an expression of strength of character. But the main indicators of this strength are the depth and strength of a person’s focus. The depth of focus is determined by the extent to which life principles, goals and motives influence a person’s personality. Superficiality in direction is expressed in the fact that life goals, principles, interests do not penetrate into the depths of a person’s personality, but remain something external for him. The strength of direction is determined primarily by the level of achievements that a person strives for. The stability of a person’s orientation is of great importance for strength of character. Depth, strength and stability of direction do not yet provide strength of character; for its implementation, strong-willed traits of activity, organization and stamina are required. The structure of character is dynamic not only in the sense that character traits enter into a diverse and often changeable relationship, but also in the sense that even the most stable character is subject to change depending on the conditions in which it is formed and manifested. His features also change and acquire new meaning in the dynamics of his character. All this leads to the conclusion that when determining the structure of character in each specific case, it is necessary to take into account both the individual uniqueness of each trait, depending on its combination with other traits, and the character as a whole, as well as its dynamic traits, explained primarily by the variability of living conditions .
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER
Character is formed as a result of the integration of various personality traits, formed under the influence of life and upbringing. The integration of properties is subject to certain laws. The dominant in the orientation of the personality, as it were, determines the selective nature of experiences and volitional activity, subordinates and inhibits the formation of those personality properties that do not correspond to the main orientation. This leads to a pedagogical conclusion: in order to form an integral and socially valuable character, it is necessary to comprehensively develop the personality and constantly pay attention to the formation of a socially significant core of character. Therefore, when developing character, one should clearly represent the moral and psychological ideal positive character new person. Implementing a program is a very difficult matter. To do this, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the ways and means of effective character formation, individual and age characteristics personality. Character is formed gradually, and in the early stages of personality development - in addition to the consciousness and will of the growing person himself. Therefore, the constant complication of the demands of others and the activities that a person carries out and which is vital and important for his development is of decisive importance in the progressive development of character. The demands of people and activities then form character when they are systematic and progressively more complex, that is, they constitute constant and characteristic conditions of a person’s life, which gradually turn into integral components of his way of life. Knowledge gives guidance on how to outside world, and in yourself, and this already builds confidence and determination. However, the most favorable conditions for positive character formation are the combination of learning and work.
MANIFESTATIONS OF CHARACTER
The typology firmly establishes the position that all mental processes and mental states can be studied only in specific human activities. This is the principle of the inextricable connection or unity of the psyche and activity. Characterological differences between people can also be best established by studying the activities of one or another person. Objective and significant indicators of focus, perseverance and other character traits are given by a person’s work. The same person sometimes manifests himself differently in different types of work, depending on working conditions, his attitude towards it, and the success achieved. When speaking about the characterological significance of work, it is necessary to keep in mind both the pace and quality of work, which do not always correlate with each other in humans.
Life requires a high pace of work, but with the obligatory condition of preservation and high quality. The pace of a person’s work to some extent depends on temperament - under equal conditions, speed in work can be expected more from a sanguine person and a choleric person than from a phlegmatic person and a melancholic person, but characterological traits are even more important. The slowness of the pace can be explained by various character traits: for some people - prudence, the desire for accuracy and precision, for others - laziness, reluctance to expend the effort required for fast work, for others - uncertainty, fear of making mistakes. A fast pace at work is more often associated with traits of volitional activity, in in some cases it indicates that harmful haste, in which there is no thoughtful attitude to the matter. Character is manifested with great force in those types of human actions that we call actions. An act is an action that is subject to social, moral or legal assessment.
Of particular importance for character are actions that reflect the direction and will of a person. There are characterologically very demonstrative actions, the motives of which a person is not aware of - such, in particular, actions out of habit or blind imitation, but it is precisely in how inclined a person is to such actions that the character traits of this person usually appear. Negative actions that clearly violate the principles of social and moral behavior are called misconduct. Acquiring consistency and stability, actions form human behavior. Character is manifested in behavior, no less than in individual actions. When studying manifestations of character in activity, it is necessary to clarify the motives for a given action, since outwardly similar actions can be a manifestation of different characterological traits. The more complex and lengthy the activity, the more clearly it expresses character. Therefore, individual reactions are indicative of character only to the extent that they are included in actions, activities or behavior as a whole. For character, not only the activities, actions and behavior of a person in their external expression, but also the corresponding mental states are indicative.
The work, actions and behavior of a person, as well as the products of his activity, are the main manifestations of character. Therefore, there is no way to know the character of a person without knowing what this person is like at work and what his actions and behavior are. Psychologists consider thinking in unity with language. Thoughts do not exist without words, therefore a person’s orientation, which is always expressed in the content and image of his thoughts, cannot be divorced from language. For the knowledge of character, it is of great importance how a person speaks: a lot or a little, sincerely or not, the same type or with different people in different ways, what expressions he uses, what is the style of his speech and much more. Life observations show that it is easy to distinguish between people who talk a lot, who love to talk, and people who are taciturn and silent. In turn, talkativeness has different degrees and shapes. Talkativeness can serve as a manifestation of various character traits: self-confidence, desire to show off, narcissism, egocentrism, but also, to a certain extent, attentiveness to people, responsiveness, and the desire to be pleasant in society.
Thus, talkativeness can be associated with various characterological traits: the inability to restrain oneself, exaggerated and not entirely reasonable frankness, as well as the desire to give the impression of a lively, pleasant person in society. The reasons for silence and reticence are no less varied. Silence can be explained by a high sense of responsibility for one’s words, sometimes by a kind of cunning, a desire to hide one’s thoughts and feelings, and in some cases by isolation, timidity, and suspicion. The strength of a person’s character, whether he is silent or talkative, is most characterized by a sense of responsibility, which encourages him to carefully weigh his words, not throw them to the wind, take into account their possible consequences, control his speech, in accordance with the conditions of the place and meeting. Talkativeness usually correlates with verbosity. However, there are cases when a talkative person, that is, a person who loves to talk, is laconic, and a taciturn person, if he has to speak, speaks at length. Some people always retain their characteristic style of speech, while others change it depending on the interlocutor. Insincerity in speech often indicates double-mindedness, pretense, and spiritual emptiness. Character is also manifested in the content of the speech: its topic, plot, factual material presented and thoughts. The uniqueness of individual characters is manifested here in which side of the issue receives more attention. Undoubtedly, the style of his speech also characterizes a person. A person’s speech style can indicate general emotionality, as well as the content of dominant emotions. Vocal facial expressions are also of characterological significance, as they introduce something new into the style of oral speech. Some people speak monotonously, as if on one note; others often change intonation: some like to make more or less expressive pauses, others avoid pauses; Some have a lot of theatricality in their speech, while others have simple and natural intonations. Such external features of speech as smoothness, rhythm, high or low tone, haste or slowness are also not without significance. Attempts were made to determine character traits by voice, by the external features of a person’s speech.
In a number of studies, the results of the experiments were positive. It turned out that by voice (timbre, intonation and other factors) one can to some extent judge a person’s character. But there were studies that gave completely negative results. In any case, based on both life observations and experimental data, one can make general conclusion that when judging a person’s character, the external form of speech should be used to some extent. Apparently, we need to keep in mind the speech that is familiar, to some extent feigned. Character is manifested not only in external, but also in internal speech. Character traits can manifest themselves both in oral and written speech, in its vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and style. It has long been noted that it is not without characterological significance whether a given person prefers to express his thoughts orally or in writing. Preference for oral speech is observed in people who are sociable, lively, and often have a sanguine temperament; and written speech, those who are self-centered, shy, and self-conscious are more likely to write. However, this kind of facts cannot be broadly generalized. Preference for spoken or written language may be explained by for various reasons, and first of all, by the presence or absence of the proper skill, and therefore the characterological indicators of such a preference can be established only by comparison with other manifestations of character. When writers and artists describe the characters of their heroes, they often strive to give a clear idea of their external appearance, that is, body structure, facial expressions, pantomime and others, deliberately emphasizing the connection between these features and certain internal aspects of the personality. However, cases of expression of character traits in the structure of the body cannot serve as a sufficient basis for broad generalizations. Neither height, nor body weight, nor the ratio of the sizes of the torso and limbs in themselves say anything about a person’s character, in particular, about his ideological orientation and strong-willed qualities. With the same type of body structure, people have a wide variety of characters. Moreover, there may be a complete discrepancy between the structure of the body and the spiritual appearance of a person. Often in life, to judge a person’s character, they resort to the indicators given by his face. They talk about likeable and unattractive people, thereby indicating the positivity or negativity of their character traits, as they find expression in their facial features. When they say about a person “beautiful, but not attractive,” this often means that the beautiful features of his face express negative qualities, such as arrogance, arrogance, selfishness, and disdain for other people.
Character indicators on a person’s face can be divided into static and dynamic. Static indicators include the structural features of the head, the outlines of the eyes, lips, nose and others. The spiritual physiognomy is judged by the physical physiognomy. Dynamic indicators include facial expressions, that is, expressive facial movements, all those changes in the face that are not random and situational, but are in some way related to the mental appearance of a person. At one time, such great importance was attached to physiognomic indicators of character that even a special science arose on this basis - physiognomy. The claim of physiognomy to solve all the riddles of character knowledge did not come true. This, however, does not mean that all the specific material presented by physiognomists does not deserve any attention. However, the denial of the unfounded claims of physiognomy does not prevent us from recognizing the well-known characterological significance of facial features along with expressive facial expressions. Some people have very expressive facial features and facial expressions. The eyes play a big role in facial expression. They can be wide open, as if surprised, or, conversely, lowered, as if peering incredulously, with a brilliant or dull gaze, motionless and mobile, “running” and the like.
Eye expression can sometimes serve as an indicator of character. Changes in facial expressions are also indicative of the nature. Many, including open, character traits can be expressed in a smile. People who never smile on their faces seem cold and stern. A weak smile, often and unexpectedly appearing on the face, can express a tendency towards irony, skepticism, self-doubt, as well as good nature, gentleness, and friendliness. A lot of experimental research has been carried out to compare various indicators of a person’s external appearance with his personality or character traits, determined by subjective assessments. A number of studies have set the task of recognizing character traits from photographs.
The results turned out to be quite contradictory. The only thing that can be considered established (albeit known without experiments) is that physiognomic indicators have different meanings for different character traits, but there is not yet sufficiently convincing experimental data for the practical use of experimental physiognomy in character diagnosis. Gestures sometimes reveal a person's character more than their appearance. You can distinguish between people with rich and poor gesticulation. Being associated with emotional excitability, gestures often express a person’s temperament: we often expect abundant gestures from sanguine and choleric people than from melancholic and phlegmatic people. But abundant gestures can have different characterological meanings. She can speak of lack of restraint, as well as unnaturalness. Similarly, stinginess of gestures in some cases means general inhibition, shyness, in others - greater restraint, smartness, and the ability to control oneself. For understanding character, gestures that are familiar and at least original in detail are especially important. Even a person’s costume and his belongings sometimes represent an important detail in his characterization. All of these features of a person’s external appearance have characterological significance, not only each individually, but also in combination with one another. Sometimes the combination is such that these features are in complete agreement with each other. In other cases, external traits are in disharmony, which creates a contradictory impression of a person’s character. But the ability to introduce significant details into the interpretation of the same image and the expression of this individual interpretation in special facial expressions, pantomime and other external manifestations show that the connection between the external appearance and the spiritual essence of a person is plastic. Usually, a person’s external appearance gives something to the knowledge of character only if there are other manifestations of character. Thus, a person's appearance can be interpreted in different ways.
Only having some knowledge about a person’s character from other manifestations (primarily from activity), can one say what trait, for example, the laughter or tearfulness of a given person indicates. In life, the relationship between character and appearance can be more complex, less defined, and therefore it would be reckless to make a judgment about a person’s character only on the basis of appearance.
METHODS AND SOURCES OF CHARACTER KNOWLEDGE
Revealing the structure of character - its traits and manifestations - allows us to outline the main ways of studying it. The question of methods for character research is of great fundamental importance, since the methodology largely depends on the understanding of character. The connection of the methodology for studying character with theoretical premises does not mean that if these premises are false, then individual scientifically significant facts cannot be collected. But at the same time, there are general requirements for the developed methods:
1. Materials must be accurately recorded so that they can be verified;
2. Methods must be reliable;
3. The methodology must be objective;
4. Each method of studying character must have so-called validity, that is, compliance with its purpose, in particular diagnostic and prognostic significance.
5. To judge character, subjective data should also be used - both the statements of the person being studied, and the opinions of people who know him well about him.
6. Finally, when choosing and applying methods, we must not forget that we are talking about characterological studies, that is, those in which it is necessary to find indicators of character traits in one form or another. Therefore, the technique of conducting and analyzing the results of using each method depends on the specific purpose of this characterological study. Characterological methods include: objective observation, introspection and self-analysis, natural and laboratory experiments, conversations and questionnaires, free writing, analysis of activity products. Sources of knowledge also include: letters, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, biographies, literary and artistic works.
UNITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND TYPICAL TRAITS IN HUMAN CHARACTER
The question of the relationship between individual and general character traits is of great theoretical and practical significance. It would be a big mistake to try to reduce character only to general or only to individual traits. If we consider each character as a bearer of a certain type to which its originality is completely reduced, it will lead to a refusal to consider a living person with all his specific features and forms of activity and to limitation only to the construction of a typology. Having accepted the point of view of the importance of only the individual in character, we thus face the fact of an infinite variety of completely different characters, which do not reflect common features. Moreover, psychology, if it must deal only with individual characters, thereby refusing to consider general traits, then it will actually not have the right to use any kind of characterological concepts, since each concept is based on a generalization. The problem is resolved by the fact that the individual and the general in character are opposites that form a unity.
When studying the psychology of human character, it is necessary to distinguish:
a) the typicality of individual traits and manifestations for a given person;
b) typicality of traits and manifestations for a group of people.
Strictly speaking, what most characterizes a particular person is precisely what is typical in his features and manifestations. This includes that in individuality that is more stable, definite, permanent. From this point of view, for example, habits are characteristic. On the contrary, the unexpected in human behavior is often atypical and therefore uncharacteristic. Typicality also means indicativeness, vivid expression of character in general or in its essential features. The typicality of character traits and manifestations does not mean its simplicity and sketchiness. Character can be very complex and contradictory, and complexity and contradictions are manifested in specific actions. Since a person’s character changes, the typicality of his individual traits and manifestations can change accordingly. Such changes depend on life conditions, and above all on the conditions of upbringing. Thus, what is typical for a person in his activity and consciousness is what is most indicative of him, and at the same time has stability, integrity and certainty. But at the same time, it must be noted that this typical is not motionless, static, but, like everything in nature, is subject to change. The character of each person to a certain extent reflects typical national traits. There is no doubt that, depending on social life, culture, language, each nation develops national characteristics. To some extent, the character of a nation is also reflected by its geographical environment; for example, it is not without reason that they speak of southerners as more active and impressionable people than northerners. But it would be wrong to attribute any immutable character traits to a nation. As the living conditions of a nation change, its character also changes. Typical class features are also very significant. Each age period in human development also has special features. But no matter what the typical one is, it is distinguished by features common to all groups:
- The presence of certain common features in an individual, which precisely determines typicality;
- The typical not only always finds individual expression, but exists only in the individual, outside of which it would be an empty scheme.
- Typical is characteristic of a group;
- The typical represents some unity, some wholeness;
- The typical is plastic, changeable, and often contradictory.
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPOLOGY OF CHARACTERS
There are many attempts to classify characters. The first attempt to classify characters belongs to Plato, who created a typology of characters based on ethical principles. After Plato, the problem of characters was dealt with in ancient Greek literature by Aristotle's student Theophrastus. From a scientific point of view, the first attempt was made by the creator of phrenology, Hall, in the first half of the 19th century. It was this time that is considered to be the beginning of the emergence of the science of character. Gall's theory listed 27 elementary mental abilities from which human character is built. Despite criticism of Gall's list of abilities, despite the fact that phrenology itself, which Gall created, did not last long, it is interesting to note that after a century, some “abilities” from Gall’s list will receive not theoretical justification, but also empirical confirmation in the works of great psychologists XX century. At the beginning of the 20th century, psychologists involved in the study of character faced the goal of systematically studying individual characters and compiling their classification. But this turned out to be no easy task. And on this occasion, the German psychologist W. Stern said in 1900 that he completely denies the possibility of drawing up a classification of characters when current state knowledge. Subsequently, many psychologists dealt with the problem of studying character, among whom I would like to highlight: domestic ones - A.F. Lazursky, N.D. Levitov, B.G. Ananyev, A.G. Asmolov, E.A. Klimov, K.K. Platonov, S.A. Rubinstein, B.S. Bratus, A.E. Lichko, P.B. Gunnushkin and many others, as well as foreign ones - Z. Freud, A. Cordiner, D. Honigman, D. Hsu, G. Blum, E. Fromm, K. Jung, E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon and others.
It should be noted that although they all dealt with the same problem, they had their own approach to it. Gradually, two directions in the study of characters emerge. The first includes the so-called social characters, the second individual. For the first time in the history of psychology, the concept of “social character” was formulated by A.F. 18 years before E. Fromm. Lazursky. So in his work “Classification of Personalities” he wrote: “The ideal classification should be considered one that in each of its types would give not only the subjective characteristics of a given person, but also his worldview and social physiology, since, of course, they are in connection with his character: in other words, the classification of personality must be not only psychological, but also psychosocial in the broad sense of the word." The founder of this trend can rightfully be considered the American psychologist E. Fromm. He gave it a very clear formulation: “Studying the reactions of any social group, we are dealing with the personality structure of the members of this group, i.e. Individual people; however, we are not interested in those individual characteristics that distinguish these people from each other, but in those general features personalities that characterize the majority of members of a given group. This set of character traits, common to the majority, can be called social character: Social character includes only that set of character traits that is present in the majority of members of a given social group and arose as a result of common experiences and general image life." But this definition gives only a general formulation of social character and does not give its function. Regarding the function of social character, E. Fromm gave it the following formulation: "If the character of an individual more or less coincides with the social character, then the dominant aspirations of the individual encourage him to do exactly what is necessary and desirable in the specific social conditions of his culture." After E. Fromm, one can single out the American psychologist E. Shostrom and the Russian psychologist B. S. Bratus, who also dealt with the problem of a social character and created their own typological models of social characters If social character includes only a set of character traits that are present in the majority of members of a given social group, then the typology of individual characters reflects the psychological situation when, within the same culture, one person is different from another. The creator of the first typology of character is considered to be K Jung Jung himself believed that “the purpose of psychological typology is not to classify people into categories,” but rather “a tool for research that requires supporting points of view and a guiding line.” However, this typology, like most great discoveries, attracted as much criticism as positive reviews. One of the most ardent critics was E. Fromm, uniting the disparate Kretschmer, Sheldon and Jung, he generally refused to create a typology of characters for Jung, being convinced that the above-mentioned authors allowed a shift in the concepts of temperament and character, and that their speech in general It's mainly about temperament.
Seven years later, after creating his typology, Jung makes a conclusion unexpected for his worldview. So at a meeting of Swiss psychiatrists in 1928, he says: “Character is a stable form of human existence, and a form of both physical and mental kind: In fact, the mutual penetration of bodily and mental characteristics is so deep that by the properties of the body we can not only draw conclusions about the qualities of the soul, but also by spiritual characteristics we can judge the corresponding bodily forms."
K. Jung was prompted to this conclusion by the emerging works of E. Kretschmer. E. Kretschmer's idea was that our body and soul and their manifestations are closely interconnected. After E. Kretschmer, the development of this direction was carried out by one of his critics, W. Sheldon. And although W. Sheldon’s typology is sometimes called a formalized version of the Kretschmer system, in essence it differs significantly from E. Kretschmer’s typology. In addition to the typologies mentioned here, there are many different approaches to the problem of character. In general, the second half of the 20th century gave rise to new sprouts of typologies of individual differences, most of which are based on the typology of C. Jung. After everything described, we will try to find an answer to the question: “Why is a typology of characters needed?” K. Jung answered this question more precisely than others. In his opinion, the typology is:
1. A critical tool for the researcher;
2. An aid to understanding the wide variety of individuals and a key to fundamental differences in psychological theories. And, finally, the most important thing, this is an essential means for determining the “personal equation” of a practical psychologist, for avoiding serious mistakes in working with patients.
LITERATURE
- Levitov N.D. "Psychology of Character" Ed. 3rd, rev. and additional M., "Enlightenment", 1969.
- Kovalev A.G. "Personality Psychology" Ed. 2nd, correct. and additional M., "Enlightenment", 1965.
- Raigorodsky D.Ya. "Psychology and psychoanalysis of character. Reader on psychology and typology of characters" - Samara: Publishing house "BAKHRAH", 1997. 22
Character structure. Character traits
Personality is very multifaceted. It is possible to identify individual sides or traits that do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are connected together, forming a more or less integral character structure. The structure of character can be traced in the natural dependence between individual aspects of character. I.P. Pavlov drew attention to the fact that in an integral system, individual parts have different meanings: some come to the fore, others are disguised, and others recede into the background.
To determine the structure or structure of a person’s character means to identify the main components or properties in the character and to establish the specific features determined by them in their complex relationship and interaction. In the structure of character, different researchers identify different properties.
B.G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and condition of the integrity of the individual and his main properties include orientation, habits, communicative properties, emotional-dynamic manifestations formed on the basis of temperament. A.G. Kovalev and V.N. Myasishchev includes in the character structure such pairs of properties as “balance - imbalance”, “sensitivity - aggressiveness”, “breadth - narrowness”, “depth - superficiality”, “richness (content) - poverty”, “strength - weakness”. N.D. Levitov highlights the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength and firmness. These and many other attempts to isolate the structural properties of character require additional serious analysis and generalization.
Most researchers identify primarily two aspects in the structure of an established character: content and form. They are inseparable from each other and form an organic unity. The content of character constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes. The content of character manifests itself in the form of certain individually unique relationships that speak of a person’s selective activity. Different forms of character express different ways of manifesting relationships, temperament, and entrenched emotional and volitional characteristics of behavior.
What character and temperament have in common is their dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person, and above all on the type of nervous system. Temperament determines character traits such as balanced behavior, ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, flexibility of reaction, etc. (however, it does not predetermine character). The properties of temperament may, to some extent, even come into conflict with character (for example, a tendency towards melancholy and efficiency). In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation. It becomes the dynamic side of character and determines the emotional orientation, the speed of mental processes and the manifestation of personality. Ultimately, the traits of temperament and character are organically connected and interact with each other in a single holistic appearance of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his individuality.
Character for a long time identified with the will of man. The expression “a man of character” was considered as a synonym for the expression “a strong-willed man.” Will is associated with strength of character, its firmness, determination. On the one hand, character is formed in volitional actions and is manifested in them - volitional actions in situations that are significant for the individual pass into a person’s character, becoming fixed in him as his relatively stable properties; on the other hand, these properties determine human behavior, his volitional actions. The strong-willed character is distinguished by certainty, constancy and independence, firmness in achieving the intended goal.
A number of researchers (A.G. Kovalev, V.V. Bogoslovsky, L.N. Shcherbakov) identify beliefs as one of the components in the structure of character. They believe that conviction determines the integrity of a person’s behavior, confidence in the justice and importance of the cause to which he devotes his strength. Conviction is manifested in such character traits as determination, integrity, optimism, and being demanding of oneself and others.
The originality of character is also reflected in the peculiarities of the flow of a person’s feelings. When talking about character, people usually pay attention to the emotional properties of the individual. What a person loves and what he hates, what he is indifferent to - all this in a certain way characterizes him as a person. Thus, there is a relationship between feelings and character traits. On the one hand, the level of development of moral, aesthetic and intellectual feelings depends on the nature of a person’s activity and communication, as well as on the character traits formed on this basis. On the other hand, these feelings themselves become characteristic, stable personality traits, thus constituting a person’s character.
Character is an inextricable whole. However, it is impossible to study and understand such a complex whole as character without identifying individual aspects or typical manifestations of it, the so-called character traits. Character traits are understood as individual habitual forms of human behavior in which his attitude to reality is realized. Character traits must be considered and assessed in relation to each other. Each character trait acquires its own meaning, often completely different, depending on its relationship with other traits. For example, caution without decisiveness can make a person inactive.
In the structure of character, researchers identify the following groups of traits.
The first group includes traits that express the orientation of the personality. These are stable needs, interests, inclinations, goals and ideals, as well as a system of relationships to the surrounding reality. These features represent individually unique ways of realizing the personality’s relationship to reality.
The second group includes intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.
In the most general form, all character traits can be divided into basic, leading, which set the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main ones. For example, if the leading trait is indecision, then the person first of all fears “that something might not work out,” so even if he tries to help his neighbors, it will end in internal worries and self-justifications. If the leading feature is altruism, then a person does not hesitate to help his neighbor. Knowing the leading traits allows you to reflect the essence of character and show its main manifestations.
From the entire set of relationships of the individual to the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relationships should be distinguished. The most important distinctive feature Such relationships are decisive, primary and general vital significance of those objects to which a person belongs. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. A person’s character is manifested in the following system of relationships:
attitude towards other people (here we can highlight such character traits as “sociability - isolation”, “truthfulness - deceitfulness”, “tactfulness - rudeness”);
attitude to business (here we can highlight such character traits as “responsibility - dishonesty”, “hard work - laziness”);
attitude towards oneself (here we can highlight such character traits as “modesty - narcissism”, “self-criticism - self-confidence”, “pride - humility”);
attitude towards property (here we can highlight such character traits as “generosity - greed”, “frugality - wastefulness”, “neatness - sloppiness”).
It is necessary to note a certain convention of this classification and the close relationship and interpenetration of these aspects of the relationship. Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not simultaneously and not collectively become character traits. There is a certain sequence in the transition of these relationships into character properties, and in this sense it is impossible to put on the same level the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards property, since their very content plays a different role in the real existence of a person.
It is not only natural for human character as a structural formation to manifest itself in the previously discussed relationships. It also has properties that are inherent to it as a whole: stability - plasticity, activity, strength, degree of depth and integrity. The degree of stability or variability of character allows us to judge its certainty and plasticity. Under the influence of life circumstances and upbringing, the demands of society, character changes and develops. The degree of character depth reflects the connection of its traits with the core relationships of the personality, i.e. it reflects the basic properties of a given personality and their determining role in relation to other properties, more superficial. Thus, a person exhibits certain behavioral traits depending on which properties predominate in the character structure.
In a formed character, the leading component is a belief system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person’s behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals and confidence in the justice and importance of the work he is doing.
Character traits, having a certain motivating force, clearly manifest themselves when the need to achieve success is realized. Depending on them, some people are characterized by a choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, seeking risk, competitive activity), while others are more likely to simply avoid failure, avoiding risk and responsibility.
As we noted earlier, one personality differs from another in individual characteristics, traits in the character structure. You can also highlight traits that are common to a certain group of people. Even in the most original person you can find some trait that may be inherent in a certain group of people with similar behavior. In this case we are talking about typical character traits.
A person's character is always a product of society. This explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to different groups. Individual character reflects a variety of typical traits: professional, age, national, etc. It is not difficult to describe the typical character of a teacher, doctor, military man. At the same time, each typical character has its own individual traits (the literary image of a stingy person: Plyushkin, the Stingy Knight, Gobsek). Psychology has repeatedly tried to classify character, dividing it into types. The study of character types should lead to the construction of a certain classification, to some kind of natural connection in their formation and manifestation. Without such a classification, the description of individual character types may be random and not have significant theoretical and practical significance.
Character traits
Among character properties, it is customary to distinguish between general (global) and private (local). Global character properties actually overlap the properties of temperament, since they extend their effect to an equally wide sphere of behavioral manifestations. Local character properties extend to particular, narrower situations. Some authors do not distinguish between the properties of temperament and global properties of character, considering them to be a manifestation of the same psychological reality. From our point of view, it is advisable to distinguish character properties from temperament properties, if only because they to a much greater extent reflect the style of conscious, volitional regulation of behavior and determine actions for which a person bears direct moral and legal responsibility. Most widely recognized in modern international publications The classification of global character traits is the so-called Big Five properties (W. Norman, L. Goldberg, R. Costa, P. McCrae, D. Digman, F. Ostendorf, B. DeRaad, A. G. Shmelev, M. V . Bodunov):
1) Self-confidence - uncertainty.
2) Agreement, friendliness - hostility.
3) Consciousness - impulsiveness.
4) Emotional stability - anxiety.
5) Intellectual flexibility - rigidity.
If factors 1 and 4 can be more closely associated with the properties of temperament (these are essentially the same Pavlovian Strength and Balance), then factors 2, 3 and 5 are actually factors of character as such. The Big Five concept was developed by the authors listed above (including Americans, Germans, Dutch, Russians) on the basis of psycholinguistic and then factor analysis of a huge number of linguistic designations of personality traits in national languages. The indicated Five factors reflect intercultural universals (common features) in ideas about individual differences in different linguistic cultures...
Such a character trait as extraversion - introversion (well-known, thanks to the very popular works of C. Jung and then G. Eysenck), in the Big Five concept is derived from the first factor, namely: sociability and extroversion tend to be shown by self-confident people, and those who are unsure of themselves are withdrawn and introverted.
>Among the mass of mismatched typologies and classifications of local (situation-dependent) character factors (R. Cattell, H. Gough, J. Guilford, D. Jackson, A. E. Lichko, A. G. Shmelev) we will name individual factors that are of undoubted importance V pedagogical practice:
1) Sociability - isolation.
2) Dominance (leadership) - subordination.
3) Optimism - despondency.
4) Conscientiousness - lack of conscience.
5) Courage - caution.
6) Impressionability - thick skin.
7) Gullibility - suspicion.
9) Dreaminess - practicality.
10) Anxious vulnerability - calm serenity.
11) Delicacy - rudeness.
12) Independence - conformism (dependence on the group).
13) Self-control - impulsiveness.
14) Passionate enthusiasm - apathetic lethargy.
15) Peacefulness - aggressiveness.
16) Active activity - passivity.
17) Flexibility - rigidity.
>18) Demonstrativeness - modesty.
19) Ambition - unpretentiousness.
20) Originality is stereotypical.
Of course, this list could be continued, but we stopped here at the listed 20 factors, since they can quite convincingly illustrate the main ideas of modern differential psychology of character. Any act in which the above traits are manifested turns out to be polydeterministic, that is, it has many external and internal reasons. Moreover, external causes (external situational stimuli and conditions of behavior) do not act on a person automatically, but through his ability to perceive and understand (categorize) the situation. If a child is not inclined to consider an objectively dangerous situation as alarming, then he will not show an anxiety reaction. Internal factors of behavior also turn out to be at different levels. If the situation is not very clearly placed by the child in a certain category, if it is perceived by him ambiguously (as a situation of uncertainty), then most likely the child will follow his temperament or global character traits in this case: for example, a hardy and self-confident child will actively explore the situation, find out missing information from the outside, and a weak and insecure child is more likely to show caution and avoid excessively anxious and frightening uncertainty. If the situation is categorized by the child more unambiguously, then he will try to apply in it the behavior strategy he has developed that is habitual for this situation. In most cases, this situational strategy coincides with his temperamental properties, but in some cases a contradiction may be observed.
>A strong and self-confident child in most situations exhibits the following local character traits: sociability, dominance, optimism, courage, aggressiveness, activeness, ambition. Accordingly, a weak and insecure child will show the opposite traits in most situations. But sometimes in some game in which the special ability (private talent) of a given weak child brings him success, the weak child begins to display the whole complex of traits characteristic of a strong and self-confident person.
Another example. If a child’s style of individualistic confrontation is reinforced as a global life strategy, then in most situations such a child displays isolation, suspicion, aggressiveness, dishonesty, rudeness, dominance, ambition, and demonstrativeness. Accordingly, a child whose surroundings reinforced the style of collectivistic mutual assistance from an early age will most likely have a whole bunch of opposite character traits. But this does not mean that there are no situations where the first child turns out to be, for example, more trusting than the second child.
Research shows that local character traits develop and change flexibly in a person throughout life, especially since they are still in the stage of their primary formation in children. Timely diagnosis of emerging character traits can allow educators to have time to influence this process: to reinforce desirable character traits and smooth out and soften the excessive sharpness (emphasis) of undesirable traits.
The theory of character accentuation. The theory of personality character accentuation Accentuations Scientists have long
Accentuation is an extreme variant of the norm, in which certain character traits are excessively enhanced, as a result of which selective vulnerability to a certain kind of psychogenic influences is revealed, with good resistance to others. In other words, accentuation is a variant of mental health (norm), which is characterized by particular severity, sharpness, and disproportion of certain character traits to the entire personality and leads to a certain disharmony.
The theory of personality character accentuation Accentuation Scientists have long been trying to divide people into certain groups and types in terms of their psychological characteristics. Such attempts are of great practical importance, since, having classified a person as a certain type, we can assume that he has traits characteristic of the entire typological group, and on this basis predict his behavior in certain situations. From this point of view, one of the most common typologies is the theory of personality accentuation
Accentuation is a holistic picture of a personality, it is not just a random set of qualities. But speaking of accentuations, psychologists and even psychiatrists do not seek to evaluate these paintings.
Having certain accentuations is neither bad nor good - it’s just something a person was born with. The author of the concept of accentuation is German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard; he coined the term “accented personality.”
According to K. Leonhard, accentuations are individual human traits that have a tendency to transition to a pathological state. With greater expression of these traits, they leave an imprint on the personality as such and, finally, can acquire a pathological character, destroying the structure of the personality.
The personalities designated by Leonhard as accentuated are not pathological. High scores for individual accentuations may decrease over time (especially in adults), or may remain virtually unchanged throughout life.
In general, accentuations are not as stable as temperament, and depend more not on the characteristics of higher nervous activity (although this connection is very firmly preserved), but on the characteristics of upbringing, the general influence of the environment, the microclimate in the family, school, social environment, etc. In their pure form, the properties of specific accentuations are not always present in a person, there may be “dominant” and “subdominant” accentuations, they can “overlap” each other. Accentuations can be hidden or obvious.
Hidden accentuations are balanced and almost all people have them, and are identified using tests and techniques. When the situation worsens, hidden accentuation appears - these are extreme variants of the norm.
Moreover, the direction of the pointed trait in a socially beneficial direction or vice versa plays an important role. Recognizing the type of accentuation (especially in a teenager) is one of the most important tasks.
The type of accentuation indicates character weaknesses and allows us to foresee factors that can cause decompensation methods or psychogenic reactions leading to personality maladjustment. Accentuations of character traits can play a global role in the positive development of personality if they are recognized in time and directed in the right direction.
There is nothing superfluous in a person. In this regard, we will consider existing types personality accentuations according to K. Leonhard and get acquainted with their features.
1.Demonstrative type. Characterized by increased demonstrative behavior, liveliness, mobility, and ease of establishing contacts.
He is prone to fantasy, deceit and pretense, aimed at embellishing his person, to adventurism, artistry, and posturing. He is driven by the desire for leadership, the need for recognition, the thirst for constant Attention to his person, the thirst for power, praise; the prospect of being undetected weighs him down.
He demonstrates high adaptability to people and emotional lability. There is boundless egocentrism, a thirst for admiration, sympathy, veneration, and surprise.
2.Stuck type. He is characterized by moderate sociability, tediousness, a penchant for moralizing, and taciturnity.
Often suffers from imaginary injustice towards him. In this regard, he shows wariness and distrust towards people, is sensitive to insults and grief, is vulnerable, suspicious, vindictive, worries about what happened for a long time, and is not able to easily move on from insults.
He is characterized by arrogance and often initiates conflicts. The main feature is a tendency to affect (love of truth, resentment, jealousy, suspicion), inertia in the manifestation of affects, in thinking, in motor skills.
3. Pedantic type. It is characterized by rigidity, inertia of mental processes, difficulty in getting up, and long experience of traumatic events.
He rarely enters into conflicts, acting as a passive rather than an active party. At the same time, he reacts very strongly to any manifestation of disorder.
Punctual, neat, Special attention pays attention to cleanliness and order, is scrupulous, conscientious, tends to strictly follow the plan, is leisurely and diligent in carrying out actions. 4. Excitable type.
Insufficient controllability, weakening of control over drives and impulses are combined in people of this type with the power of physiological drives. He is characterized by increased impulsiveness, instinctiveness, rudeness, tediousness, gloominess, anger, a tendency to rudeness and abuse, to friction and conflicts, in which he himself is an active, provoking party.
Irritable, hot-tempered. 5. Hyperthymic type.
People of this type are distinguished by great mobility, sociability, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes, excessive independence, a tendency to mischief, and a lack of a sense of distance in relationships with others. They almost always have a very good mood, good health, high vitality, often a flourishing appearance, good appetite, healthy sleep, a tendency towards gluttony and other joys of life.
These are people with high self-esteem, cheerful, frivolous, superficial and at the same time businesslike, inventive, brilliant interlocutors; people who know how to entertain others, energetic, active, proactive. 6. Dysthymic type.
They are characterized by a pessimistic attitude towards the future, low self-esteem, as well as low contact, reticence in conversation, even silence. Such people are homebodies, individualists; They usually avoid society and noisy company and lead a secluded lifestyle.
7. Anxious type. To people of this type characterized by low contact, minor mood, timidity, timidity, and lack of self-confidence.
Children of the anxious type are often afraid of the dark, animals, and are afraid to be alone. They avoid noisy and lively peers and do not like excessively noisy games.
They early develop a sense of duty, responsibility, and high moral and ethical requirements. They try to disguise the feeling of their own inferiority in self-affirmation through those types of activities where they can reveal their abilities to a greater extent.
8.Exalted type. A striking feature of this type is the ability to admire, admire, as well as smiling, a feeling of happiness, joy, and pleasure.
They are characterized by high contact, talkativeness, and amorousness. They are attached to friends and loved ones, altruistic, have a sense of compassion, good taste, and show brightness and sincerity of feelings.
They can be alarmists, subject to momentary moods, impulsive, easily move from a state of delight to a state of sadness, and have mental lability. 9. Emotive type.
This type is related to the exalted one, but its manifestations are not so violent. They are characterized by emotionality, sensitivity, anxiety, talkativeness, timidity, and deep reactions in the area of subtle feelings.
Their most strongly expressed feature is humanity, empathy for other people or animals, responsiveness, kindness, they rejoice at the successes of others. They are impressionable, tearful, and take any life events more seriously than other people.
10.Cyclothymic type.
Characterized by alternating hyperthymic and dysthymic states. They are characterized by frequent periodic changes in mood, as well as dependence on external events; joyful events give them pictures of hyperthymia: a thirst for activity, increased talkativeness, a race of ideas; sad ones - depression, slowness of reactions and thinking, their manner of communication with people around them also often changes.
Thus, when conducting a study of accentuated traits, it becomes possible to trace behavioral traits, emotional, mental, a tendency to delinquent behavior, a tendency to alcoholism, the risk of psychopathy, the risk of developing depression, social maladaptation, gender-role disharmony, emancipation reaction, degree of conformity (a person’s tendency to change his or her behavior under the influence of other people so that it corresponds to the opinions of others). Pathological characters Character (from Greek.
Harax - trait, sign, attribute) is a combination of the most stable features, essential personality properties, manifested in a person’s behavior and a certain attitude towards the surrounding reality and towards himself. Character is the quality of a person as a whole.
Moreover, “all character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits” (K.K. Platonov). Psychopathy is a pathological character formed under the influence of various unfavorable (congenital or acquired) factors based on anomalies of higher nervous activity.
The identification of a group of pathological characters was initially determined by the needs of judicial practice, for example, when deciding the issue of sanity (mid-19th century). A great contribution to the doctrine of this was made by domestic psychiatrists I. M. Balinsky (1827-1902), V. Kh. Kandinsky (1849-1899) and others, who considered pathological characters as a persistent personality anomaly.
S.S. Korsakov considered the presence of disharmony of the mental structure caused by heredity, intrauterine intoxication, infection, trauma or improper upbringing to be characteristic of a pathological character (psychopathy). Stereotyping a person’s reactions to certain significant events leads to the formation of characterological or pathocharacterological patterns.
According to the prominent Soviet psychologist A.E. Lichko, the pathological reaction differs from the variants normal behavior the following parameters: 1. tendency to generalization, i.e. the ability to arise in the most different situations and be caused by a variety of reasons, including inadequate ones; 2. a tendency to acquire the property of a pathological stereotype, repeating the same act like a cliché on different occasions; 3. a tendency to exceed the “ceiling” of behavioral violations, which is never exceeded by the group to which he belongs; 4. a tendency to lead to social maladjustment. Pathocharacterological reactions are psychogenic personal reactions.
These reactions are distinguished from “characterological” - non-pathological behavioral disorders that appear only in certain situations, do not lead to personality maladjustment and are not accompanied by somato-vegetative disorders. Pathological situational (pathocharacterological) reactions often develop gradually on the basis of psychological
Pathocharacterological behavior is understood as behavior caused by pathological changes in character formed in the process of a person’s mental development and upbringing. In modern clinical psychology, there are three groups of factors contributing to the development of pathocharacterological features: genetic; organic; psychosocial.
Genetic factors determine the functioning features of the affective sphere of the personality, which, under the influence of psychosocial factors in the development process, become more defined and persistent. In case of personality disorders, there is a strengthening or weakening of the functioning of one of the levels of the basal system of Emotional regulation.
The intensity and direction of the unconscious assessment of various influences depend on this system environment. The uneven development of the levels of the basal system determines the maladaptive nature of the interaction between the psyche and the environment.
Organic brain lesions that occur during the perinatal period of a child’s life, as a result of skull injuries or neurotoxic infections, also take part in the formation of personality disorders. Scientists have discovered changes in the functioning of catecholamine systems, changes in the biochemical activity of the brain, lateralization, and density of brain tissue in people with personality disorders.
In development personality disorders factors of genetic predisposition and organic brain damage interact with factors of psychosocial development of the individual - unfavorable family conditions, abuse and violence in childhood, improper upbringing. It is with the decisive effect of factors of psychosocial development that the formation of personality disorders is associated with certain genetic and organic predispositions.
Psychosocial factors are manifested mainly by situationally determined pathological behavioral disorders: delinquency, running away from home, vagrancy, early alcoholism and use of other psychoactive substances, suicidal behavior, transient sexual deviations. Among delinquent adolescents under 16 years of age, 71% become alcoholics, 54% run away from home; 10% have sexual deviations, 8% have suicide attempts.
Depending on the conditions of their upbringing and treatment, children with different genetic and organic predispositions may demonstrate similar patterns of problem behavior and social interaction. The discovery of this fact even led to the fact that for some time one of the alternative terms for denoting psychopathy was the phrase “sociopathic personality” (a person who has disturbed, maladaptive social connections).
Classification of Personality Disorders The development of a clinical classification of personality disorders faces serious obstacles. They are due primarily to the variety of variants of abnormal personalities and the existence of numerous transitional types, the study and systematization of which is very difficult.
Difficulties in differentiating personality anomalies depend, figuratively speaking, “to a greater extent on the personality of the psychiatrist than on the personality of the patient.” One pole of psychopathy is adjacent to endogenous psychoses, and the other is adjacent to a wide range of psychogenies.
This situation often leads to a mixture of different principles (clinical, psychological and social) when creating a taxonomy of psychopathic conditions. Kretschmer's classification In the classification of E. Kretschmer (1930), all personality anomalies are combined into two groups: schizoids and cycloids.
This dichotomous division reflected the author’s fundamentally different positions in the classification of psychopathy. The starting point of this classification, built on the principle of “movement from illness to health,” was the division of endogenous psychoses into two polar groups proposed by E. Kraepelin (schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis).
The essence of the widely known psychobiological theory of E. Kretschmer was as follows. There are biological correlations between endogenous psychoses and bodily constitution.
Among patients with schizophrenia, individuals with leptosomal, asthenic, athletic and dysplastic constitution predominate. In diseases of the circular circle, the pyknic constitution predominates.
According to E. Kretschmer, a similar distribution of somatic constitutional types is observed in two groups of pathological temperaments (psychopathy) - schizoids and cycloids. Schizoids and cycloids, according to E. Kretschmer, are individuals who “oscillate” between illness and health.
Cycloids are simple natures with a direct, natural and unfeigned feeling. They are sociable, friendly, good-natured, cheerful, but at the same time they can be calm, sad, and soft.
In schizoids, according to E. Kretschmer, a distinction is made between “outer side” and “depth”. Caustic severity or dull sullenness, caustic irony, timidity, silent withdrawal - this is the outer side of a schizoid.
Whatever becomes the content of their ideas is inaccessible to anyone, all this is only for them alone. In domestic psychiatry, starting from the 30s, the classification of P. B. Gannushkin (1933) received the greatest recognition.
P.B. Gannushkin identified the following types of psychopathic personalities: cycloids, asthenics, schizoids, paranoids, epileptoids, hysterical characters, unstable, antisocial, constitutionally stupid. This classification only partially uses the clinical descriptive criterion that previously formed the basis of the classifications of E. Kraepelin and K. Schneider.
Along with the types of psychopathy identified on the basis of clinical and Psychological characteristics(unstable, asthenic, etc.), in P. B. Gannushkin’s classification there is a group of so-called constitutional predispositions, or constitutional psychopathy (schizoids, cycloids, epileptoids, etc.
), corresponding to certain psychoses. Compared to the taxonomy of E. Kretschmer, the classification of P. B. Gannushkin is typologically much more differentiated.
In addition, psychopathic types here have acquired greater clinical certainty. What is common in the concept of constitutional psychopathic types by E. Kretschmer and P. B. Gannushkin is the desire to form a typology of psychopathy in accordance with similar in psychopathological structure, but more sharply defined painful conditions found in endogenous psychoses.
Despite the commonality of approaches to the typology of psychopathy, the views of P.B. Gannushkin and E. Kretschmer on the clinical and pathogenetic significance of the constitutional types they identified differ significantly. If E. Kretschmer considers schizoid psychopathy as one of the initial stages of psychosis, then according to P. B. Gannushkin, increased schizoid traits can “develop” to a state that is already on the border between mental health and illness.
At the same time, such an abnormal personality type, which arises not as a result of external (painful, psychogenic, etc.) influences, but under the influence of other (heredity, constitution, etc.) reasons, can serve as the basis for the development of mental illness.
However, such a mental constitution does not predetermine the occurrence of psychosis. Moreover, in some cases, endogenous diseases manifest themselves in individuals without a corresponding predisposition.
When differentiating personality disorders, the method of their formation is also used as a criterion. This approach was developed by O.V. Kerbikov and his school.
Within this area of research, two groups of psychopathy are distinguished: constitutional (“nuclear”) and acquired. “Nuclear” psychopathy includes congenital (including genetically determined) personality anomalies or those formed as a result of adverse influences in the prenatal period.
The group of acquired (acquired, reactive) psychopathy combines character pathology that is formed in childhood. In the genesis of personality anomalies in these cases, a large place is occupied by unfavorable social and psychological factors (poor living conditions in childhood, orphanhood, lack of maternal affection or, on the contrary, overprotection, asocial attitudes of the microsocial environment, drug addiction, alcoholism of Parents), which are not counteracted by corrective educational influences .
The clinical types of psychopathy traditionally identified in domestic psychiatry - schizoid, psychasthenic, asthenic, affective, paranoid, hysterical, excitable (epileptoid), unstable, a group of emotionally stupid individuals are largely comparable to the variants of personality disorders presented in ICD-10. 13 Similar abstracts: Accented personalities Akimova A. S. I-II Accented personalities.
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