Psychology extreme situations- This is one of the areas of applied psychology. It exploresproblems associated with the assessment, prediction and optimization of mental states and human behavior in stressful situations.

Emergency is a situation in a certain territory that has developed in a dangerous situation, catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may result in damage to health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of people’s living conditions.

An extreme situation (ES) is a situation that goes beyond the usual, associated with particularly unfavorable or threatening factors for human life.

The difference between an extreme situation and an emergency is that an extreme situation is a direct interaction of a person with a highly complex situation, occurring over a short period of time and leading a person to a personal threshold of adaptation, when a danger is created to his life and health. An extreme situation is not just an emergency, but an exceptionally dangerous event or a set of dangerous events.

In an extreme situation, psychological shock can be accompanied by muscle numbness, disruption of the process of normal thinking, and loss of conscious control over feelings and will. Psychological shock can manifest itself in breathing problems, dilated pupils, rapid heartbeat, and peripheral spasms. blood vessels, the principle of oxygen supply to the brain is disrupted. The state of psychological shock can last from several minutes to several days.

In particular, psychodiagnostics in extreme situations has its own distinctive features. In these conditions, due to time constraints, standard diagnostic procedures cannot be used. Actions, including those of the practical psychologist, are determined by the contingency plan.

Emergency situations can be classified according to the following criteria:

according to the degree of surprise: sudden (unpredictable) and expected (predictable). It is easier to predict social, political, and economic situations; it is more difficult to predict natural disasters. Timely forecasting of emergencies and correct actions make it possible to avoid significant losses and, in some cases, prevent emergencies;

by speed of propagation: An emergency can be explosive, rapid, rapidly spreading or moderate, smooth in nature. Rapid ones most often include most military conflicts, man-made accidents, and natural disasters. Environmental situations are developing relatively smoothly;

by scale of distribution: local, local, territorial, regional, federal, cross-border. Local, local and territorial include emergencies that do not extend beyond the boundaries of one functional unit, production, or locality. Regional, federal and transboundary emergencies cover entire regions, states or several states;

by duration of action: may be short-term or protracted. All emergencies resulting in pollution environment, are classified as protracted;

the nature: intentional (intentional) and unintentional (unintentional). The former include most national, social and military conflicts, terrorist attacks and others. Natural disasters, by the nature of their origin, are unintentional; this group also includes the majority of man-made accidents and catastrophes.

According to the source of origin, emergency (extreme) situations are divided into:

– Man-made emergencies;

– Emergencies of natural origin;

– Emergencies of a biological and social nature.

Types of man-made emergencies: transport accidents and disasters, fires and explosions, accidents with the release of hazardous chemical substances (HAS) and toxic substances (TS), accidents and disasters with the release of radioactive substances (RS) or highly toxic substances (STS), sudden collapse of structures, accidents on electrical and energy systems(EPS) or communal life support systems, accidents at industrial wastewater treatment plants, hydrodynamic accidents.

Types of emergencies of natural origin: geophysical, geological, meteorological, agrometeorological, dangerous marine hydrological phenomena, natural fires.

Types of emergencies of a biological and social nature: famine, terrorism, civil unrest, alcoholism, drug addiction, substance abuse, various acts of violence.

Emergencies associated with changes in the state of the lithosphere - land (soil, subsoil, landscape); composition and properties of the atmosphere ( air environment); state of the hydrosphere (water environment); state of the biosphere; infectious diseases of humans, animals and plants.

For practical purposes and to establish a unified approach to assessing emergencies of a natural and man-made nature, determining the boundaries of emergency zones and adequately responding to them, a classification of emergency situations has been introduced:

– depending on the number of people affected by these emergencies;

– people whose living conditions are impaired;

–the extent of material damage, as well as the boundaries of the distribution area damaging factors Emergency.

The source of the emergency is defined as dangerous a natural phenomenon, accident or man-made incident, infectious disease people, animals and plants, as well as the use of modern means of destruction (MW), which may result in an emergency.

The damaging factor of an emergency source is defined as a component of a dangerous phenomenon or process caused by an emergency source and characterized by physical, chemical and biological actions or phenomena that are determined by relevant parameters

An emergency zone is defined as a territory or water area in which an emergency occurred as a result of the occurrence of an emergency source or the spread of its consequences from other areas.

A contaminated zone is an area within which hazardous chemicals or biological agents are widespread.ie (bacteriological) agents, in quantities that pose a danger to people, animals and plants and the environment natural environment.

The source of damage is a limited area within which, as a result of exposure to SSP, mass death or injury of people, farm animals and plants occurred, buildings and structures, as well as elements of the natural environment (EN) were destroyed and damaged.

Damage assessment due to emergency situations is carried out according to 5 main parameters:

– direct losses due to emergencies;

–costs of emergency rescue and other urgent work;

– the volume of evacuation measures and the costs of their implementation;

– emergency response costs;

– indirect losses.

Conventional methods are also inapplicable in many extreme situations. psychological impact. It all depends on the goals of psychological influence in extreme situations: in one case, you need to support, help; in another, it is necessary to stop, for example, rumors, panic; in the third - to negotiate.

The main principles of providing assistance to those who have suffered psychological trauma as a result of extreme situations are:

urgency;

proximity to the scene of events;

expectation that normalcy will be restored;

unity and simplicity of psychological impact.

Urgency means that help must be provided to the victim as quickly as possible: the more time passes from the moment of injury, the higher the likelihood of developing chronic disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder.

The meaning of the principle of proximity is to provide assistance in a familiar setting and social environment, as well as to minimize the negative consequences of “hospitalism”.

Expectation that normalcy will be restored: with a person who has suffered stressful situation, should be treated not as a patient, but as a normal person. It is necessary to maintain confidence that normalcy will return soon.

The unity of psychological influence implies that either its source should be one person, or the procedure for providing psychological assistance must be unified.

Simplicity of psychological impact - it is necessary to take the victim away from the source of injury, provide food, rest, a safe environment and the opportunity to be listened to.

In general, the emergency psychological assistance service performs the following basic functions:

– practical: direct provision of emergency psychological and (if necessary) pre-medical medical care to the population;

–coordination: ensuring connections and interaction with specialized psychological services.

The purpose and objectives of emergency psychological assistance include the prevention of acute panic reactions, psychogenic neuropsychic disorders; increasing the individual's adaptive capabilities; psychotherapy for emerging borderline neuropsychiatric disorders.

Psychotherapy and psychoprophylaxis are carried out in two directions. The first - with a healthy part of the population - in the form of prevention:

a) acute panic reactions;

b) delayed, “retarded” neuropsychic disorders.

The second direction is psychotherapy and psychoprophylaxis of persons with developed neuropsychic disorders. The technical difficulties of conducting rescue operations in disaster zones and natural disasters can lead to the fact that victims will find themselves in conditions of complete isolation from outside world. In this case, psychotherapeutic assistance is recommended in the form of emergency “information therapy”, the purpose of which is to psychologically maintain the vitality of those who are alive, but are completely isolated from the outside world (earthquakes, destruction of homes as a result of accidents, explosions, etc.). “Information therapy” is implemented through a sound amplifier system and consists of broadcasting the following recommendations that victims should hear:

1) information that the world goes to their aid and does everything to ensure that help comes to them as quickly as possible;

2) those in isolation must remain completely calm, because this is one of the main means to their salvation;

3) it is necessary to provide self-help;

4) in the event of rubble, victims should not make any physical efforts to self-evacuate, which could lead to dangerous displacement of the debris;

5) you should save your energy as much as possible;

6) be with your eyes closed, which will allow you to bring yourself closer to a state of light drowsiness and greater conservation of physical strength;

7) breathe slowly, shallowly and through the nose, which will save moisture and oxygen in the body and oxygen in the surrounding air;

8) mentally repeat the phrase: “I am completely calm” 5–6 times, alternating these self-hypnosis with periods of counting up to 15–20, which will relieve internal tension and achieve normalization of pulse and blood pressure, as well as self-discipline;

9) release from “captivity” may take longer than the victims want. “Be courageous and patient. Help is coming to you."

The goal of “information therapy” is also to reduce the feeling of fear in victims, because It is known that in crisis situations people die from fear more people than from the impact of a real destructive factor. After the victims are freed from the rubble of buildings, it is necessary to continue psychotherapy (and above all, amnesia therapy) in an inpatient setting.

First aid rules for psychologists:

1. In a crisis situation, the victim is always in a state of mental agitation. This is fine. The optimal level of arousal is medium. Tell the patient right away what you expect from therapy and how long it will take to work on the problem. The hope of success is better than the fear of failure.

2. Don't take action right away. Look around and decide what kind of help (besides psychological) is required, which of the victims is in greatest need of help. Give this about 30 seconds for one victim, about five minutes for several victims.

3. Say exactly who you are and what functions you perform. Find out the names of those in need of help. Tell the victims that help will arrive soon and that you have taken care of it.

4. Make skin-to-skin contact with the victim carefully. Take the victim's hand or pat him on the shoulder. Touching the head or other parts of the body is not recommended. Take a position at the same level as the victim. Do not turn your back to the victim.

5. Never blame the victim. Tell us what measures need to be taken to help in his case.

6. Professional competence is reassuring. Tell us about your qualifications and experience.

7. Give the victim confidence in his own competence. Give him an assignment that he can handle. Use this to make him confident in his own abilities, so that the victim has a sense of self-control.

8. Let the victim talk. Listen to him actively, be attentive to his feelings and thoughts. Retell the positive.

9. Tell the victim that you will stay with him. When breaking up, find a deputy and instruct him on what to do with the victim.

10. Involve people from the immediate environment of the victim to provide assistance. Instruct them and give them simple tasks. Avoid any words that might make someone feel guilty.

11. Try to protect the victim from unnecessary attention and questions. Give the curious specific tasks.

12. Stress can also have a negative impact on a psychologist. It makes sense to relieve the tension that arises during such work with the help of relaxation exercises and professional supervision.

Introduction

conclusions

Introduction

Extreme situations and conditions that arise in people due to their impact, their behavior and their reactions have been studied by many researchers for many years. Tension states (states of tension) were studied by T.A. Nemchin, L.P. Grimak V.I. Lebedev. Emotional states that arise in extreme situations were studied by A.O. Prokhorov, A Kempinski, etc. Among mental phenomena, mental states have one of the main places. At the same time, despite intensive study of the problem of mental states, much remains unclear. According to T.A. Nemchina, “successful development of this problem is necessary because mental states significantly determine the nature of human activity.” In the Russian language dictionary, “extreme” (aya, oe) is defined as:
1. Reached the highest point, extreme, ultimate. For example, extreme temperature.
2. Beyond the ordinary, extraordinary (in complexity, difficulty, danger, etc.). For example, extreme conditions (from the French extreme).
Summarizing the above, we list the characteristics of the concept “extreme”: reaching the highest point, extreme, extreme, extreme, very great in strength. What situations should be considered extreme? In works devoted to this issue, there is no unity of views. In some cases, extreme situations are understood as circumstances that place demands on a person that go beyond the range of his capabilities determined by the evolutionary process. So, A.V. Korobkov, emphasizing that the criteria for the boundaries of the adaptive range are those characteristics of functions that were formed as a result evolutionary development organs and systems that have these functions does not note the important and most often decisive role of the factor of the individual’s subjective reflection of the objective parameters of an extreme situation. An individual reflection of objective reality creates a subjective assessment of the situation and the degree of its danger. Ukrainian scientists M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich, V.A. Ponomarenko also point out the importance of subjective perception of an extreme (in their thesaurus complex) situation: “A tense situation is such a complication of activity conditions that has acquired special significance for the individual. In other words, complex objective conditions of activity become a tense situation when they are perceived, understood, assessed by people as difficult, dangerous, etc. Any situation presupposes the inclusion of a subject in it. This applies even more so to a tense situation that combines a certain content of objective activity with the needs, motives, goals, and relationships of a person. Consequently, a tense situation, like any situation, embodies the unity of the objective and the subjective. Objective – these are complicated conditions and the process of activity; subjective – state, attitudes, methods of action in dramatically changed circumstances. The general thing that characterizes tense situations is the emergence of a task that is quite difficult for the subject, a “difficult” mental state.” In the very in general terms an extreme situation is characterized as a situation of impossibility, i.e. as a situation in which a subject is faced with the impossibility of realizing the internal needs of his life (motives, aspirations, values, interests, etc.). Issues of human psychology in emergency situations must be considered in order to prepare the population, rescuers, and leaders for actions in extreme situations.

When considering issues of human behavior in emergency situations, much attention is paid to the psychology of fear. IN Everyday life, in extreme conditions, a person constantly has to overcome dangers that threaten his existence, which causes (generates) fear, that is, a short-term or long-term emotional process generated by a real or imaginary danger. This work is dedicated to human behavior and reactions in extreme situations, in particular the socio-psychological behavior of a person in an extreme situation

1. Extreme situation, its types and characteristics

1.1 The concept of an extreme situation

Extreme situation (Latin extremum - extreme, limit; situatio - position) is a concept through which an integrative characteristic is given of a radically or suddenly changed situation, associated particularly unfavorable or threatening factors for human life, as well as high problems, tension and risk in implementation of appropriate activities in these conditions. The philosophical meaning of the concept of this concept is associated with a reflection of the extreme development of events and their knowledge in connection with the functional activity of the subject. The concept of an extreme situation reflects not just an emergency, but an exceptionally dangerous event or a set of dangerous events in relation to and only in connection with the activities of people, their existence.

Extreme situations (natural disasters, catastrophes, accidents, crises, conflicts), which are sometimes inevitable realities of people’s lives, including their professional activities, despite their diverse nature, have a number of common essential characteristics:

1) suddenness of the attack, requiring special preparedness for extremes;

2) a sharp departure from the norm of habitual actions and states; 3) the developing situation is full of contradictions that require prompt resolution;

4) progressive changes in the state of the situation, conditions of activity, elements, connections and relationships of E.S., i.e. temporality of change;

5) increasing complexity of ongoing processes in connection with progressive changes and the novelty of situational contradictions and conditions;

6) relevance, transition of the situation into the phase of instability, reaching the limits, criticality;

7) the generation of dangers and threats by changes (disruption of activities, death, destruction of systems);

8) the saturation of the situation with the uncertainty of a number of changes due to their stochasticity, unforeseenness and novelty;

9) increasing tension for the subjects of an extreme situation (in terms of its comprehension, decision-making, response), etc.

An extreme situation is dangerous to life and health, and is unfavorable for the functioning of the human psyche.

Factors that generate mental tension can in some cases have a positive mobilizing effect on a person, and in others - a negative, disorganizing effect. We are interested in the resource state in extreme situations, so we will consider positive, mobilizing changes in the emotional, cognitive and behavioral sphere of the individual caused by the influence of such situations.

According to V.G. Androsyuk, such changes include:
- reduction of sensation thresholds, acceleration of sensory and motor reactions. A person shows the ability to more accurately assess stimuli, quickly responds to all changes in environmental conditions;
- decreased fatigue, disappearance or dulling of the feeling of fatigue. A person’s endurance and performance increase, and they show unpretentiousness in uncomfortable situational conditions;
- increasing readiness for decisive and bold actions. Strong-willed qualities are revealed, the decision-making stage is shortened, forecasting the development of the situation is optimally combined with healthy risk;
- activation of business motives, feelings of duty. A person becomes excited about business, the final and intermediate goals of activity are clearly and unambiguously determined;
- dominance of a positive emotional background. Solving a problem is accompanied by the emergence and maintenance of excitement, the experience of pleasure and joy with every successful action. There is a growing sense of social justice;
- activation cognitive activity. A person exhibits acute perception and actively includes the reserves of operative and long-term memory. Are being updated Creative skills, thinking is characterized by dynamism, flexibility, flexibility, active and successful search for non-standard solutions. Intuition is widely used.
- showing interest and enthusiasm.

IN last years the concept of an extreme situation acquires the status of one of the unified, generalizing categories in catastrophology, conflictology, security theory, management theories on management optimization, operational management, etc.

1.2 Classification of extreme situations

An emergency (extreme) situation (ES) is a situation in a certain territory that has arisen as a result of an accident, a dangerous natural phenomenon, a catastrophe, a natural or other disaster that may result in human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of people's living conditions. Each emergency has its own unique causes, characteristics and development patterns.

Emergency situations can be classified according to the following criteria:

By degree of surprise: sudden (unpredictable) and expected (predictable). It is easier to predict social, political, and economic situations; it is more difficult to predict natural disasters. Timely forecasting of emergencies and correct actions make it possible to avoid significant losses and, in some cases, prevent emergencies;

According to the speed of spread: an emergency can be explosive, rapid, rapidly spreading or moderate, smooth in nature. Rapid ones most often include most military conflicts, man-made accidents, and natural disasters. Environmental situations are developing relatively smoothly;

By scale of distribution: local, local, territorial, regional, federal, cross-border. Local, local and territorial include emergencies that do not extend beyond the boundaries of one functional unit, production, or locality. Regional, federal and transboundary emergencies cover entire regions, states or several states;

According to the duration of action: they can be short-term or have a protracted course. All emergencies that result in environmental pollution are protracted;

By nature: intentional (intentional) and unintentional (unintentional). The former include most national, social and military conflicts, terrorist attacks and others. Natural disasters, by the nature of their origin, are unintentional; this group also includes the majority of man-made accidents and catastrophes.

According to the source of origin, emergency (extreme) situations are divided into:

– emergencies of a man-made nature;

– emergencies of natural origin;

– Emergencies of a biological and social nature.

Types of man-made nature: transport accidents and catastrophes, fires and explosions, accidents with the release of hazardous chemical substances (HAS) and toxic substances (TS), accidents and disasters with the release of radioactive substances (RS) or highly toxic substances (STS), sudden collapse of structures, accidents on electrical and energy systems (EPS) or utility life support systems, accidents at industrial wastewater treatment plants, hydrodynamic accidents.

Types of natural origin: geophysical, geological, meteorological, agrometeorological, dangerous marine hydrological phenomena, natural fires.

Types of a biological and social nature: hunger, terrorism, social unrest, alcoholism, drug addiction, substance abuse, various acts of violence.

Emergencies associated with changes in the state of the lithosphere - land (soil, subsoil, landscape); composition and properties of the atmosphere (air); state of the hydrosphere (water environment); state of the biosphere; infectious diseases of humans, animals and plants.

– depending on the number of people affected by these emergencies;

– people whose living conditions are impaired;

– the amount of material damage, as well as the boundaries of the zone of distribution of damaging factors of the emergency.

The source of an emergency is defined as a dangerous natural phenomenon, an accident or a man-made incident, an infectious disease of people, animals and plants, as well as the use of modern means of destruction (MW), which may result in an emergency.

An emergency zone is defined as a territory or water area in which an emergency occurred as a result of the occurrence of an emergency source or the spread of its consequences from other areas.

An infection zone is an area within which hazardous chemicals or biological (bacteriological) agents are widespread. RS in quantities that pose a danger to people, animals and plants and the environment.

Damage assessment due to emergency situations is carried out according to 5 main parameters:

– direct losses due to emergencies;

– costs of carrying out emergency rescue and other urgent work;

– the volume of evacuation measures and the costs of their implementation;

– emergency response costs;

– indirect losses.

There is also another classification of extreme situations:

1. Natural disasters: earthquakes; tsunami; floods; mudflows; glacier descent; typhoons and other epidemics. Force majeure obstacles and their consequences: destruction of water pipelines, reservoirs with potable water; destruction of sewer systems; the likelihood of large-scale epidemics, etc. The impact of natural disasters on psychological characteristics human behavior.

2. Man-made disasters: gas explosions; accidents at nuclear power plants; plane and car accidents, etc. Force majeure obstacles and their impact on the psychology of human behavior.

3. Social disasters: military actions; interethnic conflicts; terrorist attacks; gang attacks; hostage taking, etc. The influence of social disasters on the psychological characteristics of human behavior.

4. Physical and mental violence. Psychological consequences of violence.

5. Stigmatization as an element of mental and social violence. Psychological consequences of stigmatization.

In addition to specifically extreme situations, events occur in a person’s life that cannot be called extreme, but still they are traumatic for the person’s psyche, in other words, critical situations. A critical situation in the most general terms should be defined as a situation of impossibility, i.e. such a situation in which the subject is faced with the impossibility of realizing the internal needs of his life (motives, aspirations, values, etc.). There are four key concepts that are used in modern psychology to describe critical life situations. These are the concepts of stress, frustration, conflict and crisis. A specific critical situation is not a frozen formation, it has complex internal dynamics in which various types of situations of impossibility mutually influence each other through internal states, external behavior and its objective consequences. For example, difficulties when trying to achieve a certain goal due to prolonged unsatisfaction of a need can cause an increase in stress, which, in turn, will negatively affect the activity being carried out and lead to frustration; further, aggressive impulses or reactions generated by frustration may come into conflict with the moral attitudes of the subject, the conflict will again cause an increase in stress, etc. The main problematic nature of a critical situation may shift from one “dimension” to another. In addition, from the moment a critical situation arises, a psychological struggle with the processes of experiencing it begins, and the overall picture of the dynamics of a critical situation is even more complicated by these processes, which, while proving beneficial in one dimension, can only worsen the situation in another. It remains to emphasize the practical importance of the established conceptual distinctions. They contribute to a more accurate description of the nature of the critical situation in which a person finds himself, and the correct choice of strategy for psychological assistance to him largely depends on this. Events that involve important changes or periods of transition in various aspects of human life. The classification includes events such as the loss of a spouse, divorce, retirement, etc. Because of their direct connection with significant changes in lifestyle, they are often called “critical events.” However, the general classification does not take into account the subtleties of the individual approach. It should be noted that life events can also be those events that did not happen - for example, if a person was not promoted or did not go to college. Psychologists who support the “life event” model view the changes that occur in adulthood and old age as the result of critical events that we experience and our attempts to adapt to these events. Early models viewed life events as a source of pathology and stressors in a person's life. When tested on the Holmes and Reich “social readaptation scale,” respondents indicate the most important events that they have experienced over the past twelve months. Each event is assessed according to the degree of its potential stress for the individual. As basic benchmarks, marriage is worth 50 points and death of a spouse is worth 100 points. Life events do produce an initial reaction of shock and disbelief (how do you take the news that you have won 20 million in the National Lottery?) But then the person is able to enter a new period of life by accumulating positive and constructive experiences about the experience. A life event must be made an integral part of being, without allowing it to dominate everyday activities.

2. A person in extreme situations, his reactions and behavior

2.1 Basic mental reactions of participants in extreme situations

The main reactions of people caught in an extreme situation include:

Non-pathological neurotic reactions with predominance
emotional tension;

Hypomimic reactions;

Maintaining adequate self-esteem and ability to set goals
equal activity;

Gradual weakening of affective shock states and
reducing the depth of their manifestations;

Inappropriate behavior of the victims;

Inappropriate motor actions;

State of numbness;

Manifestations of phobic neuroses, for example, fear of closed people
premises (victims refuse to enter the car or tent).

During evacuation of victims Some traumatic factors may also occur in safe areas:

Changing life stereotypes;

Fear for your health and the health of your loved ones;
-experience of loss of loved ones, separation of families, material

Main mental reactions of participants:

Psycho-emotional tension, alternating with astheno-depressive
strong state;

Sharpening of character traits;

Phobic neuroses;

Neurotic personality development;

- “somatization” of neurotic states;

Psychopathization of personality;

The appearance of somatogenic mental disorders;

Protracted reactive psychoses with depressive, paranoid
syndrome.

People who survived an extreme situation for a long time experience or other pathological changes in the mental sphere (post-traumatic syndrome). Among the psychopathological changes after trauma in people, the most common are the following.

Impaired memory and concentration of perception. Sufferers have difficulty concentrating or remembering something.

Unbidden memories. Terrible scenes associated with a psychotraumatic situation suddenly emerge in the victim’s memory. In reality, these memories arise in cases where the surrounding situation is somewhat reminiscent of what happened “at that time,” i.e. during a traumatic event. These signals can be smells, sights, sounds that seem to come from “out there.”

Unbidden traumatic memories are accompanied by intense feelings of anxiety and fear.

Nightmarish dreams. Dreams of this kind are usually of two types:

some convey with the accuracy of video recordings
the traumatic event as it is imprinted in the memory of the survivor

D - others only partially resemble the traumatic event. 1 A person awakens from such a dream completely broken, with muscles not tensed, in profuse sweat.

Hallucinatory experiences. A special type of uninvited memories of traumatic events, when what happened appears so vividly that the events of the current moment seem to recede to the periphery of consciousness and seem less real than memories.

In this detached state, a person behaves as if he were reliving a past traumatic event: he acts, thinks, feels as at the moment when he had to save his life.

Insomnia. Difficulty falling asleep and interrupted sleep. It is believed that a person himself involuntarily resists falling asleep when he is visited by hallucinations. He is afraid to fall asleep, lest he have a terrible dream again. Insomnia can be caused by high level anxiety, a person’s inability to relax, and persistent feelings of physical or mental pain.

"Survivor's Guilt." The feeling of guilt arises due to the fact that the victim survived an extreme situation that cost the lives of others, especially relatives or close relatives, or extremely significant friends. It is believed that this condition is characteristic of those who suffer more from “emotional deafness”, i.e. inability to experience joy, love, compassion after

traumatic event. A strong feeling of guilt provokes attacks of auto-aggressive behavior.

In extreme situations, different social groups are involved - the actual victims of the situations and their rescuers. Each of these groups has somewhat similar, and in some ways different, personality-oriented forms of behavior.

2.2 Human behavior in emergency situations

When considering issues of human behavior in emergency situations, much attention is paid to the psychology of fear. In everyday life, in extreme conditions, a person constantly has to overcome dangers that threaten his existence, which causes (generates) fear, i.e. a short-term or long-term emotional process generated by a real or imaginary danger. Fear is an alarm signal, but not just an alarm, but a signal that causes probable protective actions of a person. Fear causes unpleasant sensations in a person - this is a negative effect of fear, but fear is also a signal, a command for individual or collective protection, since the main goal facing a person is to stay alive, to prolong his existence. It should be borne in mind that the most frequent, significant and dynamic are the rash, unconscious actions of a person as a result of his reaction to danger. The greatest danger to humans are factors that can cause his death as a result of various aggressive influences - these are various physical, chemical, biological factors, high and low temperatures, ionizing (radioactive) radiation. All these factors require various methods of protecting an individual and a group of people, i.e. individual and collective methods of protection, which include: the desire of a person to move away from the influence of damaging factors (to run away from danger, to protect themselves with a screen, etc.); an energetic attack by a person on a source of possible damaging factors to weaken their effect or destroy the source of possible damaging factors.

2.3. Group behavior of people in extreme situations

The group behavior of people in emergencies refers to the behavior of the majority of people in the group who are faced with a sudden and dangerous incident or the threat of such an incident that affects the interests of all people. This is associated with real or potential material losses, human casualties and is characterized by noticeable disorganization of public order. The group behavior of people is associated with the same external event and depends on such emotional factors that are associated with the group mentality, and not with the individual properties of the human psyche. This is evidenced by the statistics of disasters, the fate of the victims, the actions of rescuers and the behavior of the surrounding population, which itself was not affected by emergency situations. People's behavior in extreme situations is divided into two categories.

Cases of rational, adaptive human behavior with mental control and management of the emotional state of behavior. In many extreme situations, pathological behavior of people was not observed and people’s adaptation to the situation was noted, calm was maintained and measures of protection and mutual assistance were carried out, and measures were taken to restore the disturbed order of life. This behavior is a consequence of strict compliance with instructions and orders of management in cases of emergency. It should be remembered that following orders and instructions prevents the spread of anxiety and concern and at the same time does not prevent the manifestation of personal initiative in the field of one’s defense.

Cases of a negative, pathological nature, They are characterized by a lack of adaptation to a situation where people, with their irrational behavior and actions dangerous to others, increase the number of victims and disorganize public order. In this case, “shock retardation” may occur, when the mass of people becomes confused and lack of initiative, or even simply distraught. A special case of “shock retardation” is panic, when fear of danger takes hold of a group of people. Typically, panic manifests itself as a wild, disorderly flight when people are driven by a consciousness reduced to a primitive level (a primitive human reaction to fear). It can be accompanied by real fury, especially if there are obstacles along the way, the overcoming of which is accompanied by a large number of human casualties. Panic reactions can also be observed in a group of people in enclosed spaces with an unknown layout, when a person feels a threat to his life. Many in these cases believe that it is almost impossible to escape, and are instantly exposed to a feeling of mass fear, especially if there are unbalanced people in the group, and there may be no more than 2% of the entire group. Psychologically, panic is very contagious, as it is associated with the manifestation of “ herd instinct" You need to know that precautions taken in advance cannot completely guarantee the possibility of panic, but can significantly reduce it, so taking such measures is mandatory. Loud-speaker warning of the population (loudspeakers on the streets, indoors) makes it possible to ensure the safety of the actions of persons in a crisis (catastrophic) situation. The danger of using the elevator is reported (stopping and the inability to leave it) and instructions are given on actions to protect and exit the danger zone, etc.

2.4 Social forms behavior in extreme situations

There are two main forms social behavior in extreme situations: social activity (type A) and pronounced social passivity (type B).

Type A behavior- a specific style of behavior that is characterized by aggressiveness, impatience, excessive involvement in work, the desire for achievement, competition, an exaggerated sense of lack of time, hasty speech, tension in the muscles of the face and body.

The main feature of this type of behavior is the desire to achieve as much as possible in a minimum period of time, overcoming any resistance from others.

There is an opinion that people with type A behavior tend to create a certain lifestyle for themselves with an increased likelihood of stress. However, Type A behavior often occurs out of connection with the situation that causes it (i.e., there is no situational specificity of Type A behavior).

Type A behavior has much in common with workaholism, a type of behavior characterized by a desire for constant success and approval from others. This type of behavior is accompanied by personal changes, affecting primarily the emotional-volitional sphere. During psychocorrectional classes, people with type A behavior are taught techniques for reducing excessive emotional tension, adequately resolving conflicts, and planning their activities.

Type B behavior- a specific style of behavior, which is characterized by relaxation, calmness, moderate involvement in work with alternation of work and rest, tension and relaxation, absence of continuous emotional tension, balance.

Type B behavior, the opposite of Type A behavior, can be
considered the behavior of a harmonious personality. People with type B behavior do not experience a decrease in social activity.

3. Methods for preventing unwanted reactions in extreme situations

1. The basis for the prevention of any psychological phenomena is an analysis of the characteristics of their occurrence and course various forms individual and collective reactions of fear (panic).

2. Vocational selection of persons for work in hazardous types of labor and especially of production team leaders (there are individuals with increased level risk). The accumulated experience in studying catastrophic situations allows us to confirm the existence of persons (psychopathy, nervousness) who are prone to causing accidents and taking inappropriate actions in a threatening situation.

3. Training in security issues and educational work to form caution in people’s minds, prevent and reasonable behavior in emergencies and emergencies. A person working in hazardous industries must:

Know your responsibilities for emergency prevention and be responsible not only for the occurrence of accidents, but also for the nature of your actions when leading the masses during fires and other emergencies;

Have a psychological readiness to act in an emergency, realize that an explosion, fire or other phenomena is a real danger, and be ready not only to prevent or stop the catastrophic process, but also to lead masses of people;

Know shift schedules and action plans in critical situations;

Participate not only in business games, but also in emergency games, which contributes to knowledge of the problem and the formation of automatic actions in emergencies.

4. The main task in an emergency and during a disaster is to keep people calm and act quickly and intelligently. This is achieved through information means and the example of the actions of others. People must know and understand that people die in a crush.

5. Leading a mass of people is the basis for preventing panic. A panic reaction is always an induction of fear, a loss of the degree of conscious leadership and the accidental seizure of “guidance” of people’s actions by persons in a state of fear and acting unconsciously, automatically. These persons, by the brightness of their actions and speech (screams), excite those around them and actually carry away with them persons who, due to fear, are in a state of narrowed consciousness and act automatically without assessing the current situation. In a state of fear, people are easily controlled and can be attracted to conditions of safe and objective activity. If the leadership of the masses is carried out by a conscious person, then people retain the ability to act intelligently and protect their lives.

6. A special role in the prevention of fear is played by a person’s business employment (position) and demonstration of the organization of the actions of those around him. “Action saves you from fear. It saves from fear and from weaknesses, even from cold and illness” (Antoine de Saint-Exupéry). Thus, the soldiers brought in to save children during the aftershocks of the earthquake did not experience fear, unlike unoccupied people (Leninakan).

7. In an acute or threatening situation, it is necessary to remove (fix) people who can induce fear and involve people in dangerous activities. Their influence on others must be suspended, since induction (transmission) of their actions to a mass of people can occur.

8. In the structure of managing a mass of people, the warning system plays an important role: loud-speaking warnings, light and sound signals, exit signs, directions of movement and other means.

So, Extreme situation (Latin extremum - extreme, limit; situatio - position) is a concept through which an integrative characteristic of a radically or suddenly changed situation is given, associated particularly unfavorable or threatening factors for human life, as well as high problematic, tension and risk in implementing expedient activities in these conditions. The behavior and reactions of a person in an extreme situation are unusually complex and require study, but at the same time, the data obtained by scientists allows practicing psychologists to help a person who has survived an extreme situation, as well as predict his possible behavior in an extreme situation and reduce the possible damage to the psyche that may occur when experiencing an extreme situation. situations.

List of sources used

1. Lebedev V. Personality in extreme conditions

2. Aleksandrovsky Yu. et al. Psychogenies in extreme situations

3. Malkina – Pykh “Extreme Situations”

4. Petrov N.N. "Man in Emergency"

5. Social Psychology: Textbook for universities / Compiled by: R.I. Mokshantsev, A.V. Mokshantseva

The relevance of the psychological training of military personnel is confirmed by the analysis of modern wars and military conflicts, indicating a tendency towards increasing requirements for the psychological training of military personnel.

With an equal balance of forces and means, the same technical equipment of the troops, only the army whose personnel are morally and psychologically superior to the enemy and is capable of maintaining psychological stability and the will to win in any situation can count on success.

It's no secret that the professional activities of military personnel include various psychogenic factors: fatigue, mental tension, anxiety, surprise of upcoming actions. The success of completing the assigned task will depend primarily on how successfully the military personnel will cope with the impact of the listed negative factors.

What is hidden under the concept of psychological training of military personnel? According to Karayani’s definition, psychological training is a system of targeted influences aimed at forming and consolidating psychological readiness and stability in soldiers, mainly on the basis of self-improvement of personal and development of professionally important qualities, gaining experience of successful actions in simulated extreme conditions of a combat situation.

The main tasks of psychological training of military personnel for actions in extreme situations are: the formation in soldiers of scientifically based knowledge about combat operations, ideas about a future war, behavior skills in a combat situation, readiness for heroism, and committing selfless acts in the name of victory over the enemy:

Military experts, analyzing the combat operations of the British armed forces in the Falkland Islands, Soviet troops in Afghanistan, the United States in Vietnam, Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf, were firmly convinced of the need for targeted hardening of the psyche of soldiers and officers in an environment as close as possible to combat, therefore, psychological training of personnel in the process of everyday combat training is carried out by practicing certain elements of psychological hardening at each lesson warriors

Military psychologist A. Maklakov notes that the effectiveness of psychological work carried out in the troops will largely depend on how punctually the principles of psychological modeling of confrontation with the enemy will be observed; professional-tactical conditioning, the content of psychological training, tasks to be solved in various types Armed Forces and branches of the armed forces, ensuring the safety of actions during exercises and training. In addition, it is very important to maintain the psychological correspondence of training and combat tasks, to create combat training situations that simulate the adequacy of mental states in combat. .

In the process of everyday combat training, psychological training of personnel is carried out by practicing at each lesson certain elements of the psychological hardening of soldiers. Best practices show that the psychological model of modern combat is created through the use of various means:

1. Simulation tools: training explosives, simulators nuclear explosion, training agent formulations, imitation grenades and land mines, explosive packages, smoke bombs, fire mixture signal flares, blank cartridges.

2. Broadcasts of recordings of battle noise effects: shots of tanks, guns, explosions of shells, mines, sounds of low-flying aircraft.

3. Creation of fires, models of damaged equipment, all kinds of engineering barriers and obstacles: simulated minefields, wire and inconspicuous fences, ditches, traps, rubble, barricades, destroyed sections of roads and bridges.

4. Organization of real counteraction to the enemy: a trained group of personnel, a two-way game with two platoons, etc.

By implementing various compositions of the above means, depending on the tasks being solved, the type of weapons and the type of troops, the psychologist, together with officers of the combat training bodies, commanders and staffs, can consciously introduce into the process of combat training activities various psychological factors that can cause both positive activity of the warrior, as well as negative mental phenomena.

Extreme situations are accompanied by the impact on military personnel of a number of factors: the creation of a threat to life is accompanied by the action of a danger factor, the real impact of fire is a factor of surprise, the lack of information is a factor of uncertainty, the implementation of unplanned actions is accompanied by the novelty of the situation. Skillful, thoughtful introduction of these factors into the educational process makes it possible to actually simulate individual elements of modern combat, and therefore solve the problems of psychological training.

When cultivating psychological stability in the face of factors caused by an extreme situation, the main efforts should be aimed at ensuring that any surprises become habitual for a soldier. So that surprise becomes the rule, surprise becomes a pattern, and a sudden change in the situation becomes commonplace.

Systematic exercise leads to automation of certain methods of action, i.e. to the formation of skills. Skill refers to techniques and ways of performing actions. It provides the warrior with the opportunity to highly effectively and efficiently demonstrate acquired knowledge and put skills into practice. A skill, according to behaviorists, is a system of reactions acquired on the basis of a few innate simple reactions., the main way to develop a person’s skills in a certain field of activity is, according to them, upbringing, education.

The formation of behavioral skills in combat conditions is achieved through systematic exercises in the application of knowledge and skills, which lead to the automation of certain methods of action. Skill refers to techniques and ways of performing actions. It provides the opportunity to highly effectively and efficiently demonstrate acquired knowledge and put skills into practice. According to the candidate psychological sciences V. Khoziev – an experienced specialist in the field of psychological support for combat training of soldiers for professional activity, the skill lies in the fact that the warrior’s consciousness is freed from the need to control the technical components of activity under the influence of various stress factors on the warrior’s psyche, allowing him to concentrate on the tasks, goals and conditions of the task.

During repeated repetition of exercises in increasingly complex conditions, the soldier’s control over his mental states and actions improves.

A psychological mechanism for the sustainable suppression of uncertainty and fear is gradually formed. With the improvement of emotional-volitional control among personnel, confidence in their abilities to overcome difficulties and achieve their goals increases.

Confidence in yourself, your weapons, commanders and comrades helps you more accurately assess the combat situation and more effectively use your knowledge, skills and abilities in practice. If a serviceman has such skills, this indicates psychological readiness to perform a combat mission in any situation.

Developing certain skills among military personnel is an important tool for countering extreme situations. The skill allows you to partially automate the execution and regulation of appropriate movements and actions, freeing, as mentioned above, a person’s consciousness from control over the “dirty work,” allowing him to focus on the main thing. Thus, when firing a gun, the gunner’s consciousness concentrates on the target, and actions to point the gun at the target are carried out automatically. This ensures the stability of actions in an unfavorable environment, their economy and rationality, because just the knowledge of how to act in an extreme situation and the confidence that the actions are correct help reduce the stressful impact of an extreme situation on the individual.

One cannot but agree with the German military psychologist Schoenau, who argued that man is a living organism that reacts to stimuli. Stimuli that influence human behavior, character and personality come from the landscape, climate and environment. A person adapts to the environment, guided by the instinct of self-preservation, and the task of psychological preparation is to adapt the soldier as best as possible to all sorts of stimuli acting on the warrior’s psyche during a combat mission.

THE CONCEPTS OF “EXTREME CONDITIONS” AND “EXTREME CONDITIONS”

Life gives nothing without hard work and worry.

Horace

Traditionally in psychology, extreme conditions are understood as those that pose a real threat to a person’s life or health (physical and mental) and have a detrimental effect on him. These are, as a rule, the most difficult, perhaps even unnatural, conditions for humans.

Extreme conditions- intense, sudden, prolonged, life-threatening and health-threatening circumstances or an environment beyond the usual in which people’s life activities take place.

However, from a psychological point of view, extreme conditions cannot involve only external factors. The internal (personal) aspect of the problem of extreme conditions is of particular importance. It is internal factors that play a large role in assessing the extremeness of conditions and can affect a person even in the absence or very slight expression of external factors. For example,

V.V. Sreznevsky, referring to Schuster, cites the following case: “The conductor of an electric tram fell ill with a serious form of traumatic neurosis after a broken cable fell on his head. Meanwhile, it turned out later that there was no current in the circuit at the time when this misfortune occurred.”

Most often, an equal sign is put between extreme situations and extreme conditions, especially with regard to the conditions of professional activity (professions associated with risk: military, firefighters, rescuers, etc.), natural and climatic conditions, political upheavals, military operations, man-made disasters.

At the same time, attempts have been made in psychology to differentiate the concepts of “extreme situations” and “extreme conditions”. So,

The concept of “extreme conditions of life” (Fig. 2.1), which is introduced by A. V. Pishchelko and D. V. Sochivko, includes, in addition to the situation (physical, temporary and psychological parameters determined by external conditions), also stimuli, episodes, environment ( social relations), environment (physical and social variables of the external world).

Rice. 2.1.

Each of the components of extreme living conditions has both positive and negative consequences, depending on its significance and subjective assessment by the individual. At the same time, a person is characterized by a situational understanding of these components of extreme conditions, on the basis of which both intrapersonal (positive) changes and pathological changes in behavior can occur. When exposed to extreme stimuli, they change mental processes and human states (perception, sensations, thinking, memory, feelings, etc.). Possible pathological disorders may include depression, phobias, and anxiety disorders. Extreme episodes transform the value system (what was previously unimportant becomes significant and valuable), but obsessions, manias, etc. may appear. Extreme situations contribute to a change in goal-directed behavior, but conflict, aggressiveness, and irritability are possible. The environment changes the mental organization of a person in better side(empathy, complicity, help, etc.), but depression, psychopathic deviations, and psychological trauma may develop. The environmental factor promotes changes in the spiritual organization of the individual (search for meaning, development of willpower, courage, heroism), but lack of spirituality and loss of moral guidelines are possible.

The environmental factor plays an important role in determining conditions as extreme. The environment is considered as the “arena” of one event, a series of events and life in general. On this basis, O. S. Shiryaeva,

S. V. Kondrashenkova, Ya. A. Surikova identify spatiotemporal characteristics of extremeness. The environment as an arena of life as a whole is considered as extreme conditions, and the environment as a series of events is considered as extreme situations. In our opinion, it should be added that from a psychological point of view, such an environmental factor as an extreme event in the conditions of a certain social system (social group, family, etc.). This is an extremely important arena for the development of an extreme event, which is directly related to the individual involved in the process of interaction with the immediate environment. This environmental factor has all the characteristics inherent in one event, a series of events, and the cultural and historical conditions in which a person develops. An event can be sudden in nature, be quite long and alternate with other events, and be constant in terms of cultural and historical conditions characteristic of a particular historical era (Fig. 2.2).

Due to the relative immutability of previously formed habitual strategies and patterns of behavior in extreme situations, a person always reacts to them through the system interpersonal relationships(asks for help, manipulates, shows aggression, helps others, etc.). It is as if he is involved in one or another interpersonal game, the exit from which can be extremely difficult. For example, a victim game in which the roles are predetermined: Victim, Aggressor, Rescuer, which will be discussed in more detail in the following chapters. This kind of relationship is built on the basis of a person’s unhealthy reactions to the intrusion of extreme events and often traumatizes the individual.

Rice. 2.2.

Thus, the assessment of an event and the attitude towards it in the conditions of a certain social system are influenced by cultural and historical conditions, the specifics of the situation itself (emergency, extreme), as well as the degree of formation of certain coping strategies, which allows us to talk about an individual history (biography ) of this or that person.

This approach gives us the opportunity to differentiate the concepts of “emergency”, “extreme situation” and “extreme conditions”, which we will return to in the following chapters. Now it is important that extreme conditions, which are more permanent than situations, are woven into a person’s biography and contribute to the development of the individual’s readiness or unpreparedness for extreme exposure.

In the psychological readiness of an individual for extreme exposure

O. S. Shiryaeva, S. V. Kondrashenkova, Ya. A. Surikova identify five components:

1) a positive assessment of extremeness, including its assessment as a challenge;
2) non-normative activity as a creative focus on processing traumatic experience, an active life position, etc.;
3) orientation towards mutual support as a focus on cooperation, altruism as opposed to selfishness;
4) the power of “I”, meaning high neuropsychic stability, risk taking, responsibility, independence;
5) subjective richness of life as an assessment of the completeness and quality of one’s life, the desire for variety and intensity of impressions.

These resources increase the adaptive potential of the individual, regardless of the nature of the extremity.

Thus, in psychological terms, we can talk about two layers of personality development under extreme conditions:

1) developing, promoting the growth and development of the individual under the influence of extreme stimuli, episodes, relationships, situations, environment;
2) victimizing, turning a person into a victim of extreme stimuli, episodes, relationships, situations, extreme environments.

There is also a third layer (intermediate). Let's call it transformative: this is not yet development, but it is not victimization either. A person seems to be between two distinct layers.

When all of the above components are superimposed, a person may find himself in extreme difficult conditions life activity. However, these conditions can become for him not only an impetus for pathological changes and victimization, but also an opportunity for transformation and positive high intrapersonal changes.

Let us note, referring to A.G. Asmolov, that “personality is generated by culture and history.” This important point is most often ignored when categorizing the concept of “extreme conditions”. Moreover, culture, history (spirit of the times, social, political, economic conditions of a particular historical period), penetrating into the multidimensional world of man, are capable of forming “sociotypical behavior”, which is manifested in the historical uniqueness of the individual, a historical personal type is formed (for example, a Soviet person ). These two factors - cultural and historical conditions (objective) and historical personal type (subjective) - must be taken into account when determining extreme conditions. In addition, when highlighting the concept of “extreme conditions”, everything that is associated with character, identity, relationships between people and a person’s attitude towards difficulties, etc. is important. (metafactors).

Thus, when defining the concept of “extreme conditions” one should start from objective, meta- and subjective factors.

On this basis, extreme conditions will be defined by us as intense, prolonged, dangerous cultural and historical circumstances, which, penetrating into the multidimensional world of a person, affect his historical identity, form a historical personal type with its own character, identity, capable of development, transformation or victimization .

When analyzing extreme states, it is advisable to turn to the very term “mental state”, which was first introduced in 1955 by N.D. Levitov and was initially understood as “a holistic characteristic of mental activity over a certain period of time, showing the uniqueness of the course of mental processes depending on the reflected objects and phenomena of reality, previous states and mental properties of the individual.” The mental state is usually clearly assessed and designated by a person (for example, “I’m scared,” “anxious,” “I’m full of strength,” etc.).

N.D. Levitov himself does not introduce the concept of “extreme mental state,” but describes a number of examples that to some extent can characterize it. For example, the author noted the role of external significant factors when a particular condition occurs: “The Great Patriotic War caused Soviet people a great rise in patriotic mood, a state of readiness to sacrifice everything to defeat the enemy.” Levitov also describes the opposite states caused by the war, taking as a basis the novel by A. A. Fadeev “The Young Guard”: “All this: rushing cars, and people walking in a continuous stream, and this explosion that shook heaven and earth, and the disappearance of the copra, - all this fell upon the girls in one instant terrible impression. And all the feelings that were cramped in their souls were suddenly penetrated by one inexpressible feeling, deeper and stronger than horror for themselves - the feeling of the abyss of the end, the end of everything, opening up before them.” At the same time, the same events, even significant for the majority, can cause different states in different people: for some they will become extreme, but for others not: much depends on the individual characteristics of the individual, past experience, previous states. When the environment is “over-demanding,” mental states go through a number of stages: aggression, regression and recovery. However, the stress factor can be so intense that even a resilient organism a strong character will not be able to completely resist him. For example, V.N. Smirnov provides different data on the ability to maintain mental balance and good level performance in extreme conditions. Some experts (V.M. Melnikov, A.I. Ushatikov, G.S. Chovdyrova) indicate that approximately 12% to 30% of people maintain mental balance. According to the most optimistic forecasts (I. O. Kotenev, N. M. Filippov), 47% of participants in extreme events act effectively. The rest are characterized by a variety of negative mental states: fear, horror, panic, etc.

Referring to the research of I.P. Pavlov, N.D. Levitov emphasizes the large role of internal physiological factors in the occurrence of extreme states of “irritable weakness” and “pathological inertia.” Irritable weakness means overstrain of the irritable process, which leads to strong explosive reactions as a result of weakening of active inhibition. The “explosion” is always followed by a sharp decline, and even the weakest stimuli can cause strong reactions (for example, quiet sounds are perceived as a strong blow). Irritable weakness is often accompanied by a state of severe anxiety and chaotic movements. This is an indicator of imbalance, not strength of a person. Pathological inertia - This is a state of exaggerated concentration on something when the normal mobility of nervous processes is disrupted, and stimuli get stuck. Leads to pathological insensitivity to everything that does not belong to the pathological “fad”. In relation to life impressions and thoughts that could distract from this point, there is dullness. Pathological inertia is expressed in the phenomena painful stereotypy(automatic repetition of the same gestures, movements, words, etc.) and perseveration(stability in repetition of emotions, sensations, phrases, etc.) as symptoms of hysteria.

A state of pathological inertia is characteristic of obsessive neurosis. Those suffering from obsessive neurosis cannot switch from thoughts and ideas that bother them. It is believed that pathological inertia accompanies paranoia. Sustained delirium develops, and painful life events are processed in the patient’s mind. At the same time, thoughts and actions in other areas of life that go beyond the delusional system remain preserved and ordered. There is no criticism of one's condition. Obsession is extremely strong, but the patient does not suffer from it, but, on the contrary, evaluates delusional ideas as an achievement and a criterion for personal development. According to I.P. Pavlov, the nature of the pathological condition is accompanied by disturbances in the interaction of two signaling systems. In psychasthenics, secondary-signal activity predominates, in hysterics - primary-signal activity. Therefore, psychasthenics are characterized by extreme expression of the thinking type, while hysterics are characterized by extreme expression of the artistic type. Both have weak nervous systems, but the weakness is unevenly expressed in the signaling systems.

In psychiatry, attempts are made to designate the general mental state for a particular disease. For example, A. Wiene and T. Simon identified a state of dual personality in hysteria; in case of insanity - a conflict between consciousness and will; in manic-depressive psychoses - the prevalence of certain types and functions of activity; for paranoia - a state of disorganization of mental life.

In mental illnesses, disturbances of consciousness have causes (determined by neurophysiology):

1) pathological changes in strength, mobility and balance of stimulation and inhibition;
2) pathological disorders of cortical and subcortical activity;
3) pathological disturbances in the relationships between the first and second signaling systems.

All this serves as the basis not only for identifying a particular disease, but also for analyzing pathological conditions in nervous activity person and special assistance organization.

As we see, any pathological changes in personality are often defined as extreme conditions. They are based on mental disorders and dysfunctions of the body, which becomes the main criterion for an extreme state.

The body's reactions to extreme stimuli are described by D. G. Tagdisi and Ya. D. Mamedov (1991) in the form of the dynamics of the development of extreme states: mobilization, resistance (stability, resistance), overexertion, exhaustion, protective inhibition (a type unconditional inhibition, which occurs in brain cells with an excessive increase in the strength, duration or frequency of excitation of the corresponding cortical structures) and again depletion. If at first extreme states express adaptive reactions of the body, then later (as a result of duration, super-intensity, extremeness) they can acquire a pathological character.

The main pathological human reactions to extreme situations, their duration and the consequences of the experience are presented by us in the textbook “Psychology of Stress”. Let us briefly dwell on some of them, since they are directly related to the issue of extreme conditions. Let us note that personality states today are considered in several aspects: it is an indicator of personality dynamics and integral reactions of the individual, conditioned by internal and external factors. As S. A. Druzhilov and A. M. Oleshchenko (2014) write, states in general characterize different levels of a person: mental, physiological, psychophysiological. And no matter how extensive the list of possible conditions is, they have one thing in common: “A condition is the reaction of the body and psyche to external influences.” Therefore, a person’s reactions to extreme situations are closely related to his conditions. The forms of reactions and their duration are identified.

1. Acute affective-shock reactions to an extreme situation develop in three forms:
1) hyperkinetic (affect, fear, twilight state of consciousness, disordered motor activity);
2) hypokinetic (partial or complete immobility, numbness, lethargy, memory impairment);
3) subacute affective psychoses (depression, delusional disorders, hallucinations, aimless motor activity, obsessive fears).

The duration of affective-shock reactions, regardless of their form, ranges from several minutes to three days.

2. Reactive states and psychoses(hysterical psychosis, reactive paranoid delusion, reactive paranoid).

In hysterical psychosis, personal characteristics play a significant role: demonstrativeness, infantilism, egocentrism. A narrowing of consciousness followed by amnesia and vivid hallucinations are observed. With hysterical stupor, immobility, a frozen mask of horror, and paralysis of emotions are noted. Reactive paranoid delusions are accompanied by a lively emotional reaction, expressed in a delusional idea that clearly dominates the consciousness. Hypochondria, suspicion, anxiety, and persecution mania are observed. This state lasts until the traumatic situation disappears. Reactive paranoid occurs against the background of a traumatic situation and manifests itself in focusing on the idea of persecution, fear, changes in consciousness, and pseudohallucinations.

3. Acute reaction to an extreme situation occurs in the form of a response to physical and psychological stress in people without visible mental disorders. Symptoms appear within an hour of exposure to a severe stressor. Disturbances in the sphere of attention occur, disorientation and inadequate hyperactivity appear. Emotions are expressed in verbal aggression, there is an experience of despair, hopelessness, and a pronounced experience of grief. Physiology also suffers: weakness, palpitations, pressure surges, headaches, etc. There are two stages in the course of acute stress disorders:
1) confusion, disorientation, narrowing of perception and attention;
2) anxiety, panic, despair, anger, stupor, vegetative-somatic symptoms, sometimes partial or complete amnesia.

When an acute stress disorder lasts more than two days, dissociative symptoms are observed: impaired consciousness, memory, depersonalization, a feeling of loss of connection with reality, insensibility. In addition, symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may occur. If it lasts more than a month, a diagnosis of PTSD is made.

4. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when exposed to an extreme situation leads to major changes in six areas of personality functioning:
1) feelings and emotions;
2) consciousness;
3) self-perception;
4) relationships with others;
5) somatics;
6) violations in the system of meanings.

The symptoms of PTSD may become more pronounced and become post-traumatic personality disorder (persistent personality changes after experiencing trauma). This disorder, its characteristics and diagnostic criteria will be discussed in more detail in the dedicated paragraph 6.2.

5. Reactions to severe stress and adjustment disorder occur in response to an extreme event. This disorder is defined based on symptomatology and the presence of one of the following factors:
1) a severe stressful life event;
2) significant changes in life, leading to maladjustment and chronic troubles.

These reactions depend on the individual vulnerability of a person and manifest themselves in different forms:

1) asthenic form reveals a prevalence of physical (decrease in physical tone, feeling of weakness, lethargy, sleep disturbance, gynotymic and hypersthenic reactions) or mental (deterioration in productivity, psychomotor retardation, attention disorders, changes in intellectual activity) weaknesses;
2) dysthymic form expressed in psycho-emotional changes (internal stress, pessimism, anxiety, depression, etc.);
3) psychovegetative form characterized by general weakness, lethargy, dizziness, fluctuations in blood pressure, feelings of heat or, conversely, cold, breathing disorders, etc.

Let us present nonspecific human reactions to extreme situations and events in the form of a table. 2.1.

Table 2.1

Nonspecific human reactions to extreme situations, events, their forms and duration

situations/	Reactions as a response to a situation	Forms of reactions	Duration
Extreme situations	Acute affective-shock reactions	Hyperkinetic, hypokinetic, subacute affective 11 sys	From a few minutes to three days
	Reactive psychoses	Hysterical psychosis, reactive paranoid delusion, reactive aranoid	For several months
	Acute reaction to stress; acute stress disorder	Hyperkinetic, hypokinetic, physiological	Several hours or days
	Posttraumatic stress disorder (IITCP)	Acute, chronic, delayed	From half a year to several years
Extreme	Adjustment disorder	Short-term, long-term, mixed anxiety-depression! cha	From two to three months to half naked

As we see, people’s reactions to extreme situations (and events) depend on many factors: situational (significance and strength of the impact of the situation) and personal (spiritual, emotional, semantic, value, mental) levels of personality development. The more disharmonious a person’s system of relationships is (to the world, to other people, to oneself), the more intensely expressed are the processes of mental disadaptation, manifested in a number of neurotic, somatic and psychotic disorders.

Thus, the concept of “extreme states” means finding a certain limit of the psychological and physiological adaptive resources of the individual (the beginning of destruction, the onset of pathology and death). Good human adaptability may prevent this limit from being set. The limiting state of death, destruction or pathology of the body is preceded by a number of adaptation states, accompanied by the activation of protective mechanisms aimed at preventing destruction. An intermediate state between normal and disease may be accompanied by unpleasant painful sensations, forcing a person to avoid the risk factor. This is the first indicator of the presence of extreme impacts. As another indicator of extremeness, a person’s capacity is used (activity, performance, which decreases under extreme exposure). The third factor of the extreme state is external, as a result of which there is a prolonged tension in the physiological, psychological and biological forces of the body, which inevitably leads to exhaustion. Even prolonged high mobilization can actualize existing diseases or cause other diseases. The fourth factor is the individual’s subjective assessment of threatening external factors and his ability to overcome them.

By extreme state, E. B. Karpova understands the dividing (demarcation) line in the functioning of the psyche. On the one hand, a person experiences feelings of maximum intensity, active activity, is distinguished by a rapid pace of reaction (instantly intuitively or instinctively makes decisions), on the other hand, mental trauma is possible, as a result of which the person needs restoration and self-healing, sometimes lasting for years. The author emphasizes that an extreme state is short-term, almost always caused by external circumstances, personally, and is characterized by “a temporary imbalance of the psyche that does not allow a person to function, using his usual methods of emotional response, decision-making or behavior algorithms.” As we see, in the scientific literature the time parameter of an extreme state is assessed differently. In any case, the totality of different reactions to an extreme situation results in extreme mental state.

A generalized description of extreme mental states is given by P. I. Sidorov, I. G. Mosyagin, S. V. Marunyak and distinguishes activation, tonic, tension and temporary characteristics. At the same time, their dual nature is emphasized.

1. Activation characteristics(intensity of mental processes) are determined by the motivational-need sphere of the individual. The degree of activation is determined by the strength of needs and motives, an optimistic/pessimistic attitude towards an extreme situation, and self-esteem of one’s capabilities. Activation is manifested in the pace of response to the situation, the energy of behavior and the severity of the desire to overcome difficulties. Activation parameters are characterized by two poles: on the one hand, excitement, an increase in the intensity of mental processes; on the other hand, inhibition, a decrease in the rate of reaction.
2. Tonic characteristics(resources, tone, energy). Increased readiness for activity, composure, and energy are characteristic of increased tone; Fatigue, distracted attention, and an asthenic type of response to extreme situations are characteristic of people with decreased tone.
3. Tension characteristics indicate the level of tension and are determined by the characteristics of the emotional-volitional sphere of the individual. The degree of tension is formed as a result of the severity of such psychological factors as increased demands on oneself, uncertainty, fears, etc. On the one hand, this is psychological comfort, confident behavior, on the other hand, psychological discomfort, uncertainty of behavior.
4. Timing characteristics are indicated by the stability and duration of the condition.

An invariable criterion for extreme mental states is tension, which is associated with an emotional attitude to the situation, therefore, a person is distinguished as a type of extreme mental states extreme emotional mental states, characterized by emotional arousal, tension, tension. If emotional arousal occurs as a reaction nervous system to extreme influence, and emotional stress is regarded as a volitional effort aimed at overcoming a difficulty, then emotional tension is a decrease in the stability of mental processes (decline in activity, asthenicity, etc.).

In studies of mental extreme states, much attention is paid to the emotional sphere of a person. For example, G. Lange (1896) wrote that emotions play the role of the most important factors not only in the life of an individual. These are “the most powerful natural forces known to us. Every page in history, both of entire nations and of individuals, proves their irresistible power.” And he continued: “Storms of passion have destroyed more human lives, devastated more countries than hurricanes; their flow destroyed more cities than floods." Therefore, we cannot omit this most important aspect of the consideration of extreme states. Particularly vivid emotions and feelings are highlighted.

1. Affect- this is the sudden appearance or rapid growth of a feeling to a degree of such intensity that all other elements of consciousness are pushed aside, and this dominant feeling constitutes its only dominant content. V. Serbsky classified as affects only those ideas that are of the greatest importance to a person. And he clarified: “The closest to them are the ideas relating to:
1) our personal individual existence and
2) its continuation in posterity.”

Therefore, the greatest tension is experienced by the affects caused by unhappy love, the affects of jealousy, which often turn a person into a wild beast. Equally important are the affects of fear of imminent danger to life, the affects of despair. However, Serbsky writes, our life is not limited to this alone, and he identifies a third type of affects: ideas about ideals, beliefs, honor, and dignity. “Our ideals and beliefs often become more valuable than our physical existence, and people sacrifice their lives to maintain their beliefs. An insult to honor, an expectation of shame can, because of this, cause the same affect.”

With any affect, changes are observed in the motor sphere, and some affects have a stimulating effect and cause increased movements (thenic), while others, on the contrary, paralyze activity (asthenic). Following the violent manifestation of the motor reaction, a sharp depletion of mental and physical strength occurs, which is characteristic of pathological affect. An indicator of pathological affect is a narrowed consciousness, complete or partial amnesia, meaningless, aimless actions, and a sharp depletion of strength.

This is how N.D. Levitov reveals the characteristics of affects: authority (a person is subordinate to affect), turbulence (sharpness, brightness, impossibility of hiding), strength, short duration. The forms of affect are two opposite states: agitation and a state of stupor.

False state characterized by pronounced erratic motor activity arising from anxiety. Fussiness appears, the person performs simple automated actions under the influence of random stimuli. Slowness of thought processes is observed (lack of thoughts, violation of logic), the perception of time changes, autonomic disorders occur in the form of sweating, rapid heartbeat, pallor, etc.

Stupor as a state in a threat situation, it is characterized by numbness, but unlike an agitated state, during stupor, intellectual activity is preserved.

2. Fear. Among the words with “dark origin” is fear Yu. V. Pustovoit. He examines it through the prism of etymology, which makes it possible for a more in-depth analysis of this phenomenon. Fear is numbness, freezing (in Lithuanian and German languages), devastation, defeat, warning, threat (in Latvian), passion, suffering, shaking of the soul, intimidation (common Slavic meaning), melancholy, closely, narrowly, squeezing the soul (in Latin), strict, severe (in Indo-European languages).

In psychology, fear is considered as a feeling of internal tension (numbness, devastation, suffering, etc.) associated with expected or real threatening events of psychological or physical nature. Of all the emotions, fear most often causes painful phenomena or pathologies that may be incurable. According to V.V. Sreznevsky, fear can cause paralysis, epilepsy, mental disorders and many other nervous sufferings, and sudden horror can even lead to death.

As a rule, fear arises in situations of threat to a person’s biological, psychological and social existence. On the one hand, fear evokes the idea of salvation, which is associated with a pleasant sensory tone and momentarily displaces all other unpleasant emotions, followed by an impulse to escape, and this latter, also having a pleasant sensory tone, increases motor activity and turns into a saving flight. On the other hand, most psychiatrists admit that fear is one of the causes of serious mental disorders and mental illnesses. This is especially true for traumatic neuroses. Indeed, even Charles Darwin noted that fear activates human physiological mechanisms (exacerbation of vision, hearing, etc.), develops an orienting reflex (focusing on danger and avoiding it).

In psychology, fear and fright are distinguished. Both mental states of a person are important to us. Thus, in the fundamental work “Fear and Mental Processes” V.V. Sreznevsky characterizes fright as an emotional state that occurs with the sudden appearance of a sensation, perception, memory, of a threatening nature, lasting a moment. When afraid, thinking is paralyzed and the ability to resist what is happening is lost. Fright can be called a short-term harbinger of fear. Fear is objective, motivates the processing of incoming threatening information and encourages activities to seek protection from harm. Fear can create a “perception tunnel” effect, limiting thinking, perception, and the ability to process incoming threatening information. In this case, numbness occurs.

According to L.V. Kulikov, the state of fear can enhance the state of mass consciousness, mass mood and the dominant mass state (prevailing emotions).

3.Horror N.D. Levitov refers to it as a type of affective fear. This is the extreme level of fear. Actually, this opinion is shared by most experts. Such fear contributes to disorganization and the emergence of a state of panic. Horror narrows mental activity, attention suffers, and it is difficult for a person to maintain self-control. Out of horror, they either perform chaotic, disorderly actions, or become numb. Unlike fear, with horror a person never has any surprise, interest, or desire to explore the object that caused horror. Therefore, horror can be called a strong, toxic, harmful emotion. Horror always signals the inevitability of disaster and death. Fear and horror are accompanied by behavioral manifestations; This can lead to a state of panic.
4. Panic- one of the characteristic emotional states in extreme situations. The word “panic” is associated with ancient Greek mythology and comes from the name of the god Pan, the patron saint of shepherds and herds. Mythology describes how a herd, driven by panic, blindly and chaotically rushes into the abyss. Panic is accompanied by a loss of control over oneself, an uncontrollable experience of severe anxiety and fear.

Panic II. I. Sidorov, I. G. Mosyagin, S. V. Marunyak refer to the temporary experience of hypertrophied fear (horror), which contributes to uncontrollable, unregulated behavior of people, sometimes with a complete loss of self-control. Panic is based on a state of helplessness in the face of an imaginary or real threat and a focus on flight instead of fight. Narrowing of consciousness, erratic actions, exacerbation of a defensive reaction, or, conversely, numbness, loss of orientation, refusal of activity - this is what underlies panic.

For example, V. M. Bekhterev designates panic as one of the brightest “mental epidemics” of a short-term nature, arising as a result of imminent mortal danger and relating to the sense of self-preservation inherent in all living organisms, manifesting itself equally among intellectuals and among common people. This is “not simple cowardice, which can be overcome within oneself by a sense of duty and which can be fought with conviction.” Panic seizes almost suddenly a whole mass of people with a feeling of imminent danger “like an acute infection.” Conviction is completely powerless against panic. Panic arises not only on the basis of unexpected visual impressions (sudden fire, car accident, etc.), but also through a word deliberately or accidentally thrown into the crowd. According to V.M. Bekhterev, panic can only stop with the cessation of external influence.

Let us give an example of a description of panic in the work of N. N. Golovitsin (1907): “... the burghers (citizens) set off into a wild flight, leaving the magnificent fortifications. Not even the slightest attempt was made on their part to retain their positions. It was an escape the likes of which I have never seen, before or since. All our efforts could not bring back any of the burghers who fled in panic. These were the same burghers whose courage had previously been worthy of praise. And now it was impossible to believe that it was them.” Here N. N. Golovitsin emphasizes another feature of panic: it can change a person so much that he becomes unlike himself.

Panic can be individual, group or mass.

Individual panic may be accompanied by panic disorders, the main symptoms of which are repeated panic attacks and unpredictability. With panic disorders, a person experiences increasing fear and experiences a feeling of impending death. All this is accompanied by vegetative symptoms (increased heartbeat, chest pain, sensations of suffocation, dizziness, sweating, a feeling of depersonalization or derealization). Panic states are different from panic attacks - the latter occur as part of phobic disorders and may be secondary to depressive disorders. There are two types of panic:

1) after extreme exposure perceived as mortal danger;
2) after a prolonged stay in a state of anxiety, tension, as a result of fixation on the subject of anxiety, which leads to nervous exhaustion.

Panic disorders at the onset of the disease may not be clearly diagnosed - this is the first phase of the formation of vegetative-anxiety states with increasing intensity as a result of exposure to a stress factor. They are isolated, pass quickly, and are not recognized as anxiety. The disease begins with the second phase of the appearance of the most pronounced anxiety-vegetative states, qualitatively transforming self-awareness and self-perception. A panic attack is assessed as a severe borderline experience of loss of control over one's behavior and state. The third phase of restrictive behavior is aimed at preventing panic attacks against the background of the development of phobic reactions. In the fourth phase, anxiety-vegetative states are complemented by depressive disorders.

Panic of a group nature covers from two or three people to several tens and hundreds, and mass panic covers thousands and tens of thousands of people. If people are in a confined space and the overwhelming majority are panicked, it is considered that panic is widespread, regardless of the number of people. In case of group and mass panic there are effects infection And suggestions, what was called by V. M. Bekhterev “mental microbe”. By itself, a group of people “turns into one huge personality, feeling and acting as one.” Bekhterev emphasized the powerful influence of mutual suggestion on the crowd, which arouses the same feelings in individual people of the crowd, maintains the same mood, strengthens the thought that unites them and raises activity to an extraordinary degree. Mass panic is dangerous because it can result in death a large number of of people. There are many examples that can be given. The most tragically famous in terms of the number of victims were the panic on Khodynka Field during the celebration of the coronation of Nicholas II (May 18, 1896), in which about 2 thousand people died and several tens of thousands were injured; panic during the funeral of I. Stalin on March 9, 1953 (statistics unknown).

Psychologists have identified factors that turn groups of people into panic crowds:

social factors (tension in society due to expected disasters). Sometimes tension is determined by the memory of tragedy;
physiological (cold, heat, hunger, fatigue, insomnia, nervous shock);
psychological (fear, fear, lack of information about possible dangers and ways to overcome them, a feeling of helplessness);
ideological (lack of a significant common goal, low level of group cohesion, lack of authoritative leaders).

These reasons create the basis for panic.

The characteristics of panic are distinguished depending on the degree of panic infection of consciousness: mild, moderate, at the level of complete insanity.

So, with mild panic (in situations of haste, a sudden flash, for example during fireworks, etc.), surprise, concern and muscle tension are observed. In case of moderate panic (situations of buying goods while rumors of shortages are spreading; minor transport accidents; fires; emergencies, in which the person is not personally included) there is a significant deformation of assessments of what is happening, criticality decreases, fear increases, and suggestibility increases. In case of panic at the level of complete insanity (extreme situations of mortal danger), consciousness turns off, loss of control over one’s behavior occurs, there is a lack of criticality, hysterical symptoms are observed, social norms and rules are broken, and aggression increases.

5. Stressful state. In the textbook “Psychology of Stress” we considered the stressful state as an independent complex psychological, physiological and social phenomenon, as the body’s response to the influence of extreme factors (stressors). The state of stress is characterized by increased physiological and mental activity and is transformed into an optimal state under favorable conditions, and into a state of high neuro-emotional tension under unfavorable conditions. In a state of stress, intellectual actions are disrupted: attention, thinking, memory deteriorate, perception is narrowed, disturbances appear in the emotional sphere, and stiffness or chaotic movements and actions are observed. But there are also positive effects of stress: acceleration of mental processes, improvement of RAM, flexibility of thinking, preservation of the production process useful information. Typically, physiological and psychological responses to stress are interrelated. Our body reacts to the influence of a stress factor with changes in the functioning of physiological systems (headaches, irritability, absent-mindedness, fatigue, weakness of the immune system, etc.). At the same time, mental processes are activated: emotional, cognitive, volitional. Extreme stressful condition can be called a state of distress.

Distress (from Greek. dys- prefix meaning disorder, and English, stress - tension) is stress associated with severe negative emotions and has a harmful effect on health

I. General characteristics of extreme situations.

The entire nature of the professional activities of police officers includes the constant negative impact of stress factors (irregular working hours, constant contact with offenders, the need for full dedication of mental and physical strength when performing official duties) , which leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of the professional activities of police officers in everyday situations of professional activity.

Extreme situations are quite common. Thousands of people die in them, and even more suffer various injuries. They cause enormous material damage. Extreme situations arise in the life of almost every person. They are associated with experiences and tensions, and are fraught with serious consequences in life. They arise, as a rule, suddenly and develop rapidly in a dangerous direction for a person, often taking him by surprise against his will.

Extreme situations are those that confront a person with great objective and psychological difficulties, oblige him to exert his full strength and make the best use of his personal capabilities to achieve success and ensure safety.

Extreme situations associated with crimes and criminal activity are of particular importance for society. Several million crimes are committed in our country every year; of which tens of thousands of murders, intentional harm to the health of citizens and rapes, robberies and robberies, more than one million thefts, 200 thousand hooliganism and fraud, etc. New types of crimes such as corruption, contract killings, kidnapping for ransom and the revival of the medieval slave trade in some regions, terrorism, counterfeiting, hostage-taking, attacks on protected objects in order to seize weapons and valuables.

It should be noted that the operational and official activities of police officers in extreme conditions are characterized by increased moral, psychological and physical stress. In most cases, such activity occurs under high psychological stress. Service tasks are performed by personnel continuously, under any conditions. At night, the operational situation causes a number of additional difficulties in the activities of police officers, negatively affecting their psyche.

Operational and service tasks are often carried out in isolation from places of permanent deployment. Police officers often find themselves in conditions of limited mobility, monotony and monotony of impressions from the surrounding area and protected objects. The lack of sensations and perceptions has a depressing effect on them, as a result of which performance decreases, memory and attention deteriorate, and psychological readiness for activity in extreme conditions decreases.

The rhythms of life during this period are disrupted; they are determined not by natural needs, but by the needs of the service. Sanitary and hygienic conditions, organization of life and food also differ significantly from the usual.

A number of habitual ways of satisfying the needs of leisure and communication are changing among police officers, and the possibilities of psychological compensation for negative operating conditions are limited.

The most important factors influencing the activities of police officers when performing combat service tasks in areas of emergency, in armed conflicts, are the presence of contacts with offenders, the contradictory attitude of the local population towards employees, and the need to act against the hostile part of the citizens of their own state. All this causes a natural internal psychological contradiction, a moral conflict with one’s own beliefs. This process is usually accompanied by negative emotional experiences.

Department of Internal Affairs officers have to participate in such actions as conducting “cleansing operations” to identify armed militants in populated areas and beyond, checking passport regimes and confiscating weapons from the population, releasing military and police detachments surrounded by armed bandits, serving at checkpoints, participating in reconnaissance and search activities in populated areas, on the ground, etc.

In such conditions, police officers are required to be able to detect and record traces of crimes committed by bandits, and maintain the ability to respond to the possibility of bandits’ actions using underground communications, sniper nests, etc.

Official work in such conditions requires police officers to ensure utmost composure, mobilization, vigilance, active thought, confidence in success, and a state of emotional balance. The weaker the professional training, the greater the impact of stress factors on people, the more attention should be paid to the psychological readiness of police officers for operational work in extreme situations. It is necessary to overcome both underestimation and overestimation of the forces and capabilities of the opposing side, therefore it is unacceptable to relax until there is complete confidence in security. What is needed is reasonable caution, diligence, the ability to unravel the enemy’s actions, the ability to surpass him in solving professional problems, which is what police officers must constantly teach.

Studying the activities of police departments in a difficult, life-threatening environment allows us to conclude that an employee feels confident if a possible situation is familiar to him from previous experience or training, if he has sufficiently complete information about what is happening, where his combat troops are located comrades and what neighboring units are doing. The psychological significance of such awareness is enormous, especially when operating at night, in populated areas, or in mountainous conditions. Lack of information and inadequate perception of it lead to a misunderstanding of the situation, and this is an additional source of gross errors in the activities of commanders and their subordinates (shooting at friendly forces, causing panic).

To summarize, we can cite the main psychological factors that influence the activities of police officers when performing service and combat missions in extreme conditions.

1. Danger factor. Danger should be understood as a perceived threat to life, health or well-being. In addition, a feeling of danger can arise not only in relation to one’s own life, but also in relation to subordinates or interacting people. An employee may be in danger of the reality of losing weapons or military equipment, without which it is impossible to perform a military mission. The danger factor is the main (or primary) one that determines the psychological specifics of a service-combat situation.

When performing service and combat missions danger is perceived as an objectively existing combination of circumstances or objects that threaten life and health. Moreover, it can be real or imaginary.

The perception of danger depends on the individual psychological characteristics of employees: some tend to exaggerate the degree of danger, others tend to underestimate. Both are equally unacceptable when performing service and combat missions, since in extreme conditions the danger is almost always real.

Its immediate perception must be adequate. To do this, danger should not surprise you or cause a feeling of fear. Accordingly, during psychological training it is necessary to develop in employees the ability to realistically assess danger.

Inadequate perception of danger leads to professional errors, increased psychological tension, panic and, ultimately, disruption of activities.

2. Factor of surprise. Suddenness is an unexpected change in the situation for an employee during the performance of a service-combat mission.

Let us consider the psychological mechanism of the influence of this factor. Before doing anything to achieve a goal, a person imagines the sequence of his actions, actions, the dynamics of external conditions, and creates a certain program of personal behavior. In this case, automated actions are excluded. After all, a person perceives external conditions from the point of view of the possibility of achieving the desired goal, and makes his own adjustments. However, in the process of professional activity, conditions can change so dramatically that it will be necessary to set a different goal and, accordingly, a different program of behavior. The employee must anticipate changes in the situation and must be prepared for the need to change the program of his activities.

It is a completely different matter if the employee did not even foresee the possibility of conditions arising that would lead to the need to change the purpose of the action. It is this situation that is perceived as sudden.

Employees react differently to a sudden change in the conditions for carrying out service and combat missions. Conditionally we can distinguish three types of behavior when exposed to this factor:

A. The employee quickly switches, defines a goal and implements a new program (positive type).

B. The employee, despite external changes in the situation, stubbornly continues to carry out the old program. As a rule, in this case the activity ends in failure.

C. The employee stops the old program, but does not define a new goal and a new program. He is practically inactive, falling into a state similar to a psychological stupor. The duration of this condition may vary. Taking into account the fact that the situation in extreme conditions of activity changes very quickly, in this case, service-combat activities, as a rule, end in failure.

3. Uncertainty factor. By uncertainty we mean
absence, deficiency or inconsistency of information about the content or
conditions for performing service and combat missions, about the enemy (criminal, organized criminal group) and the nature of his actions.

They say there is nothing worse than waiting and catching up. And in the first (situation
expectations) and in the second (“chase” situation) cases there is a significant element of uncertainty.

The intensity of the impact of the uncertainty factor varies and depends on many conditions. The situations in which it arises are also varied.

In a service-combat situation, this factor is always present.

The negative impact of uncertainty can be reduced if employees are aware psychological techniques control of emotional tension.

4. The factor of novelty of means and methods of implementing activities in extreme conditions. Novelty is determined by the employee’s experience and knowledge.

Negative influence the factor of novelty in service and combat conditions can be partially reduced if, in the process of psychological training, employees study the real experience of the actions of others in similar situations. Such classes should not be “constructed” in the abstract, but take the form of a detailed analysis and psychological analysis of the service-combat situation, mistakes made by one or another specialist, possible options for the development of the situation and the necessary actions of employees. Such events are especially important for managers at all levels.

5.Momentum factor. It should be understood as the employee’s ability to complete the assigned (or emerging) task using previously developed skills and abilities. This factor is realized if the time required to complete the actions necessary to achieve the goal is sharply reduced. Such situations arise very often in a service-combat situation. And then success in this case will be determined by the psychological readiness, speed and coherence of actions of both the individual employee and the department as a whole.

6.Time pressure factor. This factor arises in conditions under which the successful fulfillment of service and combat missions is impossible with an increase in the tempo of actions, and a rapid change in the very psychological structure of the activity is necessary. In this case, we are talking not just about increasing the pace of the actions performed, but, first of all, about changing their sequence.

The influence of unfavorable factors, with the complete or partial inability of employees to deal with them, contributes to the emergence of neurotic disorders, psychosomatic diseases, professional deformation and ultimately prevents the effective implementation of assigned tasks.

Forming psychological stability among police officers is a complex socio-psychological process. The psychological stability (stress resistance) of a police officer depends on his natural inclinations, on the social environment, as well as on vocational training and operational experience. Will a police officer be able to act at the right time instantly, actively, correctly and effectively? In practice, in the event of sudden aggressive actions on the part of offenders, police officers are psychologically unprepared to counteract: they are late, show confusion, sluggishness, and make unforgivable and seemingly inexplicable mistakes.